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• H 56 

























































IOWA APPLIED HISTORY SERIES 

EDITED BY BENJAMIN F. SHAMBAUGH 

/OLUME II NUMBER 2 


Reorganization 
of State Government 
in Iowa 

BY 

F. E. HORACK 






REPRINTED FROM VOLUME TWO OF THE IOWA 

\PPLIED HISTORY SERIES PUBLISHED AT IOWA CITY 

!N 1914 BY THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA 




















/ 


i * 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE 
GOVERNMENT IN IOWA 





IOWA APPLIED HISTORY SERIES 

EDITED BY BENJAMIN F. SHAMBAUGH 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE 
GOVERNMENT IN IOWA 


BY 

FRANK E. HORACE 


PUBLISHED AT IOWA CITY IOWA IN 1914 BY 
THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA 






\°>Y\ 

-\\s6 











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EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION 


The path of social reform is beset with many obsta¬ 
cles— so much so that both good men and good 
measures ofttimes fall by the wayside. Indeed, 
reformers can not always agree among themselves: 
men of vision and of experience differ widely as to 
the causes of bad government and still more widely 
as to the remedies that should be applied. And so it 
happens that both social reforms and reformers are 
sometimes discredited in the public mind. 

Especially in politics are reformers declared to be 
visionary and impracticable individuals, who promise 
much but accomplish little. Here it must be admitted 
there is some foundation for the criticism, since 
political reformers have too often been content with 
attacks upon individual evil-doers, hoping to set the 
government right by simply “turning the rascals out 
of office. ” It is of course necessary to eliminate from 
the public service the incompetent and the corrupt; 
but permanent betterment rarely results from such 
house-cleaning unless it is followed up by an over¬ 
hauling of the machinery of government and backed 
up by the rising standards of the whole community. 


5 


6 


APPLIED HISTORY 


It is therefore safe to say that reform movements 
accomplish permanent results when they are social 
rather than individual in character — that is, when 
they not only weed out the dishonest and the in¬ 
efficient, but also perfect the machinery of govern¬ 
ment and elevate the political standards of the 
community. In other words, the scientific method of 
reform aims to secure social betterment by ascertain¬ 
ing and removing the fundamental causes of bad 
conditions. It is clear that this is the viewpoint 
which should be maintained in political reform: 
political reformers to be successful in any large way 
must seek to remove fundamental causes of inefficient 
administration as well as attack individual cases of 
waste and incompetency. 

Benj. F. Shambatjgh 


Office of the Superintendent and Editor 
The State Historical Society of Iowa 
Iowa City Iowa 


AUTHOR’S PREFACE 


The aims and purposes of this paper on The Reorgan¬ 
ization of State Government in Iowa are simply to define 
the problem of reorganization and indicate its connection 
with the historic movement for the reform of State gov¬ 
ernment, to present briefly the several proposed plans for 
reorganization, and to apply the fundamental principles 
of reorganization to the State government of Iowa. Al¬ 
though the writer is in sympathy with many of the 
principles underlying the proposed changes in State gov¬ 
ernment, the advocacy of reorganization is not the object 
of these pages. 

An examination of the proposed plans for the re¬ 
organization of State government discloses the fact that 
this so-called reorganization relates chiefly to the execu¬ 
tive branch of the government. Thus the title of the 
paper is somewhat broader than the actual scope of the 
proposed reforms. At the same time the literature on the 
subject suggests, at least by implication, the reorganiza¬ 
tion of the whole machinery of State government; and so 
there is some reference in these pages to the reorganiza¬ 
tion of the legislature and the judiciary as well as the 
executive. 

After the first draft of this paper had been completed 
it was deemed advisable to materially expand the treat- 


7 


8 


APPLIED HISTORY 


ment of the subject along certain lines. In the absence of 
the writer the work of revision was undertaken by the 
editor of the series, Professor Benj. F. Shambaugh, who 
in addition to the customary editorial revision of the 
manuscript added materially to the body of the text itself 
— so much so, in fact, that the writer suggested that his 
name appear on the title-page as joint author. Inasmuch 
as this expressed wish of the writer was not carried out, 
he desires in this place to say that whatever merit the 
paper possesses is due largely to the revision and addi¬ 
tions by the editor — which in this case amounted to joint 
authorship. The data in the tables on pages 49-55, taken 
from the writer’s Government of Iowa, was rearranged 
and brought down to date by Dr. Dan E. Clark. 

Frank Edward Horack 

The State Historical Society of Iowa 
Iowa City Iowa 


CONTENTS 

I. Introduction : The Problem of Reorganization . 11 

II. State Government in America .... 16 

THE LEGISLATURE ...... 17 

THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE ..... 21 

THE JUDICIARY ...... 22 

OTHER DEMANDS FOR REFORM IN STATE GOVERNMENT 23 

SUMMARY ....... 27 

III. Proposed Plans for Reorganization ... 29 

THE MINNESOTA PROPOSALS .... 30 

THE ILLINOIS RECOMMENDATIONS .... 37 

THE NEBRASKA RECOMMENDATIONS ... 42 

THE OREGON PROPOSALS ..... 43 

SUMMARY ....... 44 

IV. State Government in Iowa ..... 46 

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT .... 47 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT .... 47 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT . . . .56 

SUMMARY ....... 57 

V. Proposed Reorganization of State Government in 

Iowa ......... 58 

VI. Reorganization in Iowa According to the Minne¬ 
sota Plan ........ 63 

general features ...... 64 


9 





10 


APPLIED HISTORY 


THE GENERAL ADMINISTRATION .... 65 

THE SIX DEPARTMENTS ..... 65 

THE DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE .... 66 

THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS AND CONSER¬ 
VATION ....... 68 

THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WELFARE . . .69 

THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION . . . .72 

THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND COMMERCE AND 

INDUSTRY ....... 75 

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE . . .77 

THE FRINGE OF GOVERNMENT . . . .79 


Notes and References 


83 


I 


INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEM OF 
REORGANIZATION 

Goveknment is everywhere recognized as the most im¬ 
portant agency through which certain phases of human 
welfare are secured to the community as a whole. It is, 
indeed, the organization through which the people are 
guaranteed a measure of law and order and through 
which conditions essential to human progress are se¬ 
cured. Nothing, therefore, can be of more importance to 
the people than the establishment and maintenance of a 
well organized and well conducted government. Good 
government is essential to human progress. 

As an outgrowth of historical developments which 
may be traced back to the earliest settlement of the coun¬ 
try, government in the United States is federal: that is to 
say, it consists of two distinct organizations — a National 
government and a Commonwealth government—between 
which political functions and activities are divided. Each 
organization operates independent of the other and with¬ 
in its constitutional sphere acts directly upon the indi¬ 
vidual. Moreover, Commonwealth government consists 
of a general organization, known as the State govern¬ 
ment, and certain subordinate local organizations re¬ 
ferred to as township government, county government, 
and municipal government. Altogether Commonwealth 
government comes closest to the people and touches most 
intimately the vital concerns of every-day life: and so, 


11 


12 


APPLIED HISTORY 


the organization and administration of Commonwealth 
government in all of its phases is not only of interest but 
of vital moment to every individual citizen. 

Now, in the actual workings of Commonwealth gov¬ 
ernment, weaknesses, defects, and evils are from time to 
time revealed: for governments, like private corpora¬ 
tions, may be poorly organized, badly administered, and 
corruptly used. Indeed, in the operation of political 
organizations the temptation to use power and authority 
in the interest of individuals or special classes of indi¬ 
viduals rather than for the common benefit of all the 
members of the community is always present. Moreover, 
through incompetent officials and defective organization 
the administration of government is often inefficient and 
wasteful. 

And so in recent years it transpired that, as the cost 
of government in all of its branches mounted upward and 
as instances of corruption, incompetence, and waste were 
revealed, reform movements for better government have 
been set on foot. At first the reformers assailed indi¬ 
viduals or groups of individuals — bosses, rings, and cor¬ 
rupt officials — with a view to purifying politics by 
eliminating dishonesty and graft. But too often the de¬ 
feat of bosses and the ousting of corrupt officials was 
followed by the installation of men equally dishonest, or 
if honest altogether inefficient. Even where reform 
movements succeeded in filling the offices with men who 
were both upright and capable, defective organization 
and impossible administrative methods have often pre¬ 
vented anything but temporary results. 

Out of the failures of the earlier reform movements 
has come the conviction that along with the war on cor¬ 
ruption and graft more attention should be given to the 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 13 


problem of efficiency in both men and methods. Indeed, 
the later reform movements have proceeded upon the 
theory that failures in administration and leakages in 
the public treasury are due more often to inefficient 
organization and antiquated methods than to official dis¬ 
honesty. Then, too, it is not so difficult to convince the 
public mind that changes in organization and the adop¬ 
tion of up-to-date business methods in the conduct of 
public affairs will accomplish better results than the 
denunciation of individual evil-doers. 

It is argued, for example, that the success of a private 
corporation is due not so much to the powers conferred 
by its charter, or even to the honesty or capacity of its 
directors, but rather to the efficiency of its internal organ¬ 
ization and to the skill with which it adjusts the various 
parts of its business machinery and the ability with which 
it places the right subordinate in the right place. When 
department stores, factories, and other industrial enter¬ 
prises successfully transact through efficient organiza¬ 
tion more business in a month than some States do in a 
whole year, it is natural to ask why success in the admin¬ 
istration of government should not be sought in the same 
way and by the same methods. Thus attention is called 
to the importance of organization and methods as factors 
in the realization of good government. 

It has become evident that reform movements in Com¬ 
monwealth government are now being directed chiefly 
along two distinct lines — organization and home rule. 
It is equally apparent that the one line of reform, having 
as its goal the reorganization of the machinery and meth¬ 
ods of government, emphasizes economy, efficiency, the 
simplification of organization, and the definite location 
of authority and responsibility; while the other line, at- 


14 


APPLIED HISTORY 


tempting to define and distinguish more clearly State 
and local functions, emphasizes home rule and local self- 
government. Nor are these movements necessarily an¬ 
tagonistic: through patient effort both may be worked 
out together into an harmonious system of government 
and administration. 

It is not, however, the aim of these pages to review in 
detail the whole field of Commonwealth government, nor 
to consider fully both lines of reform indicated. On the 
contrary, the purpose of this paper is simply to present 
the pending problem of the reorganization of State gov¬ 
ernment with special reference to Iowa: only incidentally 
is mention made of the equally important problems of 
home rule and local self-government. (For a discussion 
of the problems of home rule, see Mr. Patton’s paper on 
Home Rule in Iowa which appears in this series.) 

And at the very outset it is well to recognize the fact 
that attempts to effect changes in the form and organiza¬ 
tion of government usually meet with strong and per¬ 
sistent opposition. In the minds of many people a 
peculiar sacredness seems to attach to established polit¬ 
ical institutions, and reformers are constantly called 
upon to show why the government of Washington, or 
Jefferson, or Lincoln is not good enough for the present 
generation. The feeling that the principles and forms of 
government bequeathed by the Fathers are flawless and 
too sacred to be disturbed is deep seated: orthodox canons 
of political science and threadbare Jeffersonianisms are 
still generally accepted as the only basis for the organ¬ 
ization of State government. There is still a firm belief 
in the efficacy of divided powers, of checks and balances, 
of bicameral legislatures, and of popular elections as a 
means of selecting all kinds of administrative officials. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 15 


On the other hand, the need of reorganization in the 
interests of simplicity, efficiency, responsibility, and real 
democracy is becoming more and more apparent to think¬ 
ing people — who now listen with greater toleration to 
arguments for the short ballot, the direct primary, the 
merit system, the employment of experts, the coordina¬ 
tion and consolidation of commissions, bureaus, and de¬ 
partments, the budget system, and the use of modern 
business methods in public administration. And so, one 
of the pending problems of the day is the reorganization 
of State government — especially in its executive branch. 
Plans for such reorganization are even now being formu¬ 
lated in a number of States. 


II 

STATE GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA 

The first State governments in America, which were 
established during the period of the Revolution, were 
simple in organization and in methods of administration: 
they were modeled on the preceding colonial govern¬ 
ments, from which indeed they differed very little. 
Moreover, an examination of the provisions of the consti¬ 
tutions under which they operated reveals great faith in 
the legislature and a corresponding distrust of the chief 
executive. There were practically no limitations placed 
upon the powers of the law-making assembly. At the 
same time the Governor was stripped of nearly all au¬ 
thority. The State executive and judicial positions were 
nearly all filled by appointment; while property and re¬ 
ligious tests for holding office and for voting were the 
rule. 

The individualistic philosophy which prevailed in 
those days inclined men’s minds to the notion that the 
best government was the one that governed the least. 
Accordingly, the functions of State government were few 
and its activities limited. All of the needs of State ad¬ 
ministration were easily cared for by a small group of 
executive officers including, besides the Governor, a Sec¬ 
retary of State, a Treasurer, an Auditor, and an Attorney 
General. Commissions, boards, bureaus, and depart¬ 
ments were few. Moreover, these same characteristics 
marked the early State governments west of the Alle- 


16 


REORGANIZATION OP STATE GOVERNMENT 17 

glieny Mountains. If there was corruption, incompe¬ 
tence, or waste in these early governments it was on a 
scale so small as to attract little or no attention. The 
reformers were more interested in democracy than in 
efficiency. 

But the rapid settlement of the country, the develop¬ 
ment of industry on a l^rge scale, and the introduction of 
a large foreign element into the population have increased 
the problems of State government, multiplied its func¬ 
tions, necessitated a more complex organization, and 
increased the difficulties of administration. A compari¬ 
son of the more recent State constitutions with those of 
an earlier date suggests both the character and the extent 
of the changes that have taken place: the first State con¬ 
stitutions are only a few pages in length, whereas those 
adopted in more recent years are bulky documents cover¬ 
ing sometimes more than one hundred pages. 

THE LEGISLATURE 

In the early colonial period there were unicameral 
legislatures — until the Governor’s council in some in¬ 
stances developed into an upper house. The bicameral 
State legislature as provided for in the first State consti¬ 
tutions seems to have been a direct inheritance from col¬ 
onial polity, although it must be admitted that the 
organizers of those first State governments may have 
been influenced somewhat by the example of the bicameral 
Parliament in England. But the bicameral principle was 
not everywhere accepted by the fathers of State govern¬ 
ment: Pennsylvania, Georgia, and Vermont had but a 
single house at the outset. At the same time the bi¬ 
cameral system met with much favor because it fitted into 
the theory of checks and balances which the statesmen of 


2 


18 


APPLIED HISTORY 


the Revolution believed to be so essential to liberty. 
This, with the success of the early State governments 
and the example of the United States Congress, brought 
the principle of two houses into all but universal favor. 
The few States which had retained the single house very 
soon went over to the bicameral system. And this was 
the era of almost unlimited confidence in the legislature. 

But the movement for a more general participation of 
the masses of the people in State government, inaugu¬ 
rated by the democracy of Thomas Jefferson and later 
furthered by the democracy of Andrew Jackson, was 
accompanied by a remarkable decline of confidence in 
representative assemblies. And this lack of confidence in 
State legislative bodies has continued to be a striking 
feature of American politics for more than three quarters 
of a century. The reckless and corrupt manner in which 
some State legislatures granted charters, franchises, and 
special privileges a generation and more ago prompted 
the amendment and revision of many State constitutions 
with a view to limiting the powers of legislatures on a 
variety of subjects. Legislative procedure was more 
strictly prescribed; and limitations were placed on the 
taxing and borrowing powers to prevent extravagance 
and waste. To further safeguard the interests of the 
people against bad legislation, the Governor was given a 
limited veto on all acts passed by the legislature. But 
“the crowning act of distrust in the integrity and respon¬ 
sibility of the legislature has been manifested by the 
establishment, in many States, of the initiative and ref¬ 
erendum, which gives to the voter the right to make laws 
without even the intervention of the legislature. ’ 91 

Finally, cumbersome procedure, distrust of legisla¬ 
tures, unscientific and superfluous legislation , 2 and a loss 


REORGANIZATION OP STATE GOVERNMENT 19 


of confidence in the efficacy of the bicameral principle 
have led to the suggestion that State legislatures be re¬ 
organized on the single chamber plan. Heretofore the 
reform of this branch of the State government has con¬ 
sisted in placing constitutional limitations upon legisla¬ 
tive authority and in limiting the length and diminishing 
the frequency of the sessions of the legislature. But now 
it is said that what is really needed is popular control in 
legislation and that a considerable measure of such con¬ 
trol can be secured by doing away with the bicameral 
legislature and instituting a single chamber . 3 

Originally the Parliament of England consisted of a 
council of Lords and high ecclesiastics: the bicameral 
principle was a later development and grew out of the 
existence of social classes recognized by law. In more 
recent years, owing to the domination of the House of 
Commons, the bicameral principle has lost much of its 
strength in England. The bicameral system in the 
American Colonies was for the most part an outgrowth 
of the Governor’s council. Owing to the small number of 
members in each branch of the early State legislatures 
the bicameral system worked well. When the Constitu¬ 
tion of the United States was drafted the bicameral prin¬ 
ciple fitted admirably into the Federal system. More¬ 
over, when it became a matter of common belief that the 
bicameral principle was a necessary safeguard of free 
government cities began to make it a feature of their 
political organization. And it appears that the cities 
were the first to discover that a bicameral body was often 
a hindrance to good government, if not actually a source 
of corruption; and as a result there are now but few 
cities in the United States governed by a council of two 
chambers. 


20 


APPLIED HISTORY 


The suggestion of a unicameral legislature seems alto¬ 
gether revolutionary to many persons, and yet it is 
seriously advocated in certain quarters. For example, in 
Oregon a plan for a single chamber system was referred 
to a vote of the people in 1912. Defeated at that time it 
will again be voted upon in 1914. This most interesting 
proposal embodies the essential features of the parlia¬ 
mentary system of government. The proposed legislative 
body, which is to consist of a single chamber, is to be 
chosen through a scheme of proportional representation; 
and the Governor is to have a seat in the chamber. 
Speaking of the proposed plan, Professor Henry Jones 
Ford declares that State government is essentially munic¬ 
ipal in character and that “the trouble that may ensue 
from experimentation can hardly be greater or more 
varied than that which has attended experimentation in 
city government. If anywhere an efficient organization 
of State authority is produced, the type will spread like 
the commission plan of city government. ’ 9 

The unicameral plan has been advocated in Arizona, 
Texas, Nebraska, 4 Oklahoma, Kentucky, and in the Ohio 
constitutional convention in 1912. In Kansas it appears 
that at the close of the session in 1913 Governor Hodges 
proposed a single chamber for the legislature of that 
State. In his message on this subject he says: 

In common with a large and growing number of thoughtful 
people, I am persuaded that the instrumentalities for legislation 
provided for in our state constitution have become antiquated 
and inefficient. ... No reason exists in this state for a dual 
legislative system .... and I believe that we should now 
concern ourselves in devising a system for legislating that will 
give us more efficiency and quicker response to the demands of 
our economic and social conditions and to the will of the peo¬ 
ple. . . . 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 21 


I am aware of the veneration with which ancient institutions 
are regarded in some quarters, but I see no reason why we 
should cling to these institutions in carrying on the all-important 
affairs of the state, when in almost every other activity of life 
we are discarding, old traditions and antiquated methods for 
newer and progressive ideas and more efficient and economic 
methods. 5 

THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE 

In the American colonial system of government, the 
Governor was the central figure. He not only supervised 
the administration and execution of the laws, but he also 
took a hand in legislation. He initiated measures and 
possessed an absolute veto on all acts of the assembly. 
His council in some cases evolved into a permanent 
branch of the legislature. But, appointed by the King 
and representing the Royal authority in the government 
of the Colony, the Governor did not always possess the 
confidence and support of the people — especially during 
the years immediately preceding the Revolution. 

In the organization of the first State governments the 
Governor was given a very inferior position: his powers 
were greatly curtailed and he was practically denied any 
participation in legislation. The feeling against the dis¬ 
credited colonial executives was largely responsible for 
this degradation of the office of State Governor. But in 
the century that followed the adoption of the first State 
constitutions the Governor has recovered something of 
the prestige that rightly belongs to his office: his term of 
office has been lengthened; his salary increased; his ap¬ 
pointing power enlarged; his executive authority in¬ 
creased; and his participation in legislation has been 
partly restored through the limited veto which he now 
possesses. 


22 


APPLIED HISTORY 


Besides constitutional changes, the Governor has 
gained in influence wherever and whenever he has made 
himself a real leader in State politics. The value of 
strong leadership has come to be so generally appreciated 
that the formulation of a program and the vigorous advo¬ 
cacy of policies of legislation and administration by the 
Governor have met with prompt response from the peo¬ 
ple. Indeed, there is now promise that out of the pending 
reorganization of the executive functions of government 
the Governor will emerge as the real responsible head of 
State government and administration. (For the various 
proposed plans of reorganization see below, Chapters III, 
V, VI.) 

THE JUDICIARY 

During the colonial period and under the first State 
constitutions the judiciary was established and organized 
by legislative acts, and the composition, jurisdiction, and 
procedure of the early courts were subject to alteration 
by the legislature. In other words, the early State courts 
were legislative courts (that is, they were established by 
the legislature): they were not constitutional courts (that 
is, they were not established by the State constitution). 
Moreover, the judges were appointed and held their posi¬ 
tions on the bench for life or during good behavior. 

In addition to the development of a large body of tech¬ 
nical procedure, several important changes characterize 
the history of the State judiciary. First, the courts have, 
for the most part, become constitutional — that is, they 
are now specifically provided for in the State constitu¬ 
tion. Second, nearly everywhere the judicial offices with¬ 
in the Commonwealth have been made elective — the 
judges now being chosen by the people for a limited term. 

That there has been a growing dissatisfaction with the 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 23 


State judiciary in more recent years is evident from the 
serious advocacy of such reforms as the recall of judicial 
decisions, the recall of judges, the non-partisan election 
of judges, and the appointment of judges. That judges 
should be appointed seems to be rapidly gaining in pop¬ 
ular favor; but there is little unanimity of opinion as to 
the method of appointment. Some would place the power 
of appointment wholly in the hands of the Governor; 
others would have the Governor’s appointments ap¬ 
proved by the Senate; and still others have declared in 
favor of civil service examinations as a means of weeding 
out the incompetents. 

But if the elective system is to be retained it is strong¬ 
ly urged that the judges be elected on a non-partisan 
ticket. At the same time it is suggested that the Gov¬ 
ernor be empowered to make recommendations of candi¬ 
dates to the people in order to insure suitable candidates. 
The names of persons thus designated would appear upon 
the ballot as “Kecommended by the Governor”. Other 
candidates would, however, be permitted to announce 
their candidacy and secure places upon the ballot by 
petition. It is apparent that this plan seeks to combine 
the advantages of appointment and popular election. 

OTHER DEMANDS FOR REFORM IN STATE GOVERNMENT 

The many-sided character of the demand for reform 
in State government is evidenced by the variety of 
changes suggested and by the different angles from which 
the problem is viewed. In addition to the reforms men¬ 
tioned above in the discussion of the legislature, the chief 
executive, and the judiciary, a few concrete instances will 
indicate more fully the attitude of the public mind and 
explain in a measure the sympathetic reception of the 
proposals for the reorganization of State government. 


24 


APPLIED HISTORY 


In bringing about reforms in State government two 
methods are employed: (1) constitutional amendment or 
revision, and (2) legislative enactment. If the proposed 
changes come within the field of constitutional law the 
reforms must be accomplished either piecemeal through 
constitutional amendment or en masse through revision. 6 
On the other hand, if the changes relate to matters within 
the sphere of legislation then the reforms are brought 
about through the processes of statutory enactment. Al¬ 
though constitutional amendments and revisions are nu¬ 
merous, it is a fact that the methods of legislation, being 
less cumbersome, are resorted to wherever possible. 

The contemporary demand for reform in State gov¬ 
ernment is nowhere more clearly expressed than in the 
movement for direct legislation — which may be defined 
as the making of laws directly by the people. The 
strength of this movement is measured by the spread of 
the initiative and referendum in recent years. Adopted 
first by South Dakota in 1898, the referendum on general 
legislation has already secured a foothold in Oregon, Ne¬ 
vada, Montana, Oklahoma, Maine, Missouri, Arkansas, 
Colorado, Arizona, California, New Mexico, Ohio, Ne¬ 
braska, Washington, and Michigan; while constitutional 
amendments for its adoption are now (October, 1914) 
pending in at least five other States. 

The initiative has not met with as much favor as the 
referendum. At the same time, this institution is found 
in South Dakota, Maine, Montana, Washington, Oregon, 
Oklahoma, Missouri, Arkansas, Colorado, Arizona, Cali¬ 
fornia, Ohio, Nevada, Nebraska, and Michigan; while in 
five States constitutional amendments for its adoption 
are now (October, 1914) pending. (For a discussion of 
the initiative and referendum in Iowa, see Mr. Van der 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 25 


Zee’s paper on Direct Legislation in Iowa which appears 
in this series.) 

Again, the movement for equal suffrage which has 
developed so rapidly in recent years proposes an organic 
reform in State government of far-reaching importance: 
its success means the doubling of the electorate. Already 
women have been granted full suffrage in nine States; 
while in twelve States (including Iowa) constitutional 
amendments for equal suffrage are now (October, 1914) 
pending. (For a discussion of woman suffrage in this 
State, see Mr. Horack’s paper on Equal Suffrage in Iowa 
which appears in this series.) 

Those who have advocated reforms in State govern¬ 
ment early recognized the value of the short ballot prin¬ 
ciple — that is, they believed that both democracy and 
efficiency would be furthered by a reduction in the number 
of popularly elected officials. Indeed, since the appear¬ 
ance of its first bulletin in 1911 the Short Ballot Associa¬ 
tion has not only spread the gospel of efficient and 
responsible government, but has done much to bring on 
the present movement for the reorganization of govern¬ 
ment within the Commonwealths. 7 

The advocates of the short ballot have with much 
force pointed out that democracy does not require that 
every officer be elected by popular vote. Indeed, it is 
evident that only the important and policy-determining 
officers should be so chosen. When there are fewer offices 
to fill by popular election the individual voter will be able 
to arrive at a more intelligent estimate of the worth of 
candidates; and this careful selection of officials will make 
for more efficient democracy. At the same time it must be 
clear to all thinking persons that primary election re¬ 
forms will in the end prove disappointing unless accom¬ 
panied by the short ballot. 


26 


APPLIED HISTORY 


It is significant that in 1913 the Governors of Cali¬ 
fornia, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, New York, 
North Dakota, Nebraska, Ohio, Washington, and Wyom¬ 
ing advocated the short ballot in their messages to the 
legislature; while President Woodrow Wilson, and ex- 
Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William H. Taft gave 
it cordial endorsement. Indeed, President Wilson is 
quoted as saying that “the Short Ballot is the key to the 
whole problem of the restoration of popular government 
in this country. ’’ 

In his inaugural address to the General Assembly of 
Iowa in January, 1913, Governor George W. Clarke in 
discussing the lack of interest on the part of the voter, 
especially in the choice of minor officials, both State and 
local, as shown by the election returns in this State, said: 

Their offices are administrative. No public policy is involved 
in the administration of them. There are so many of them, 
State and county, that amidst the pressing duties of life it is not 
possible for many voters to inform themselves as to the merits of 
the candidates and hence thousands do not vote at all and many 
more thousands simply vote at a guess and let it go at that. 
Hence the argument for the short ballot and more appointive of¬ 
fices as conducive to better and much more efficient government. 

. . . . The appointing power being made responsible for 

results, responsibility is located and concentrated. By electing, 
responsibility is dissipated, incapable of definite location. By 
appointment administration by experts and a high order of ef¬ 
ficient public service may be secured. 8 

That the arguments for the short ballot met with 
response is evidenced by the legislation of the Thirty- 
fifth General Assembly which provided for the appoint¬ 
ment of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction 
by the Governor, the appointment of the Clerk of the 


REORGANIZATION OP STATE GOVERNMENT 27 

Supreme Court and the Supreme Court Reporter by the 
Supreme Court, and the appointment of the county super¬ 
intendent of schools by the presidents of school boards. 
(For a discussion of the methods of selecting public of¬ 
ficials, see Mr. Peterson’s paper on Selection of Public 
Officials in Iowa which appears in this series.) 

SUMMARY 

State government in America originally possessed 
some of the features of the short ballot. The law-making 
bodies were small, and in a few instances unicameral; the 
executive consisted of a small group of officers who were 
generally appointed; and the judiciary was characterized 
by the life tenure of the judges. The legislature was 
practically without limitations; the courts enjoyed the 
confidence of the people; while the chief executive was 
distrusted and his authority very much curtailed. 

But during the century which followed the adoption of 
the first State constitutions, government in the Common¬ 
wealths underwent considerable reorganization: State 
constitutions were revised and enlarged; the suffrage was 
extended; the number of elective offices was greatly in¬ 
creased; constitutional limitations were placed upon the 
exercise of legislative authority; the judiciary was put 
upon an elective basis; and executive authority was some¬ 
what strengthened and enlarged. 

At the same time the rapid democratization of govern¬ 
ment, the unparalleled industrial development of society, 
the phenomenal growth of urban communities, and the 
organization and expansion of the party system unregu¬ 
lated by law were accompanied by many political evils. 
Bosses and rings flourished in many places. In the ab¬ 
sence of a merit system in the civil service the spoils 


28 


APPLIED HISTORY 


system undermined the efficient administration of public 
affairs. Unregulated machinery for the nomination of 
candidates for office often thwarted the will of the people. 
And the lack of trained officials and experts led to mis¬ 
management and untold waste. It is difficult to say 
whether the losses through graft and corruption were 
greater than those resulting from the incompetence and 
inefficiency of public servants. 

In the indignation which followed the revelation of all 
of these evils, individual evil-doers were first assailed and 
removed from office and an impetus was given to civil 
service reform. (For a discussion of civil service reform 
in reference to Iowa, see Mr. Van der Zee’s paper on The 
Merit System which appears in this series.) Next the 
party system was attacked, with the result that primaries 
and nominating conventions are being regulated by law. 
Then various reforms were demanded, such as direct leg¬ 
islation, a single chamber legislature, equal suffrage, the 
short ballot, and the recall of judges and judicial de¬ 
cisions. Finally, the structure of State government is 
being subjected to critical analysis, and reforms are being 
suggested with a view to eliminating friction, inefficiency, 
and waste — particularly in the executive branch. To¬ 
day the reorganization of State government is pending. 9 


Ill 

PROPOSED PLANS FOR REORGANIZATION 

In several States — notably Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois, 
Nebraska, and Oregon — the demands for reform have 
reached the stage of more or less definitely formulated 
plans or proposals for reorganization, especially in the 
executive department. Moreover, it is evident that these 
proposals are not merely the result of a desire for theo¬ 
retical reorganization: on the contrary, the suggestions 
which have been advanced are, for the most part, the out¬ 
growth of efforts to realize economy and efficiency in the 
administration of public affairs. 10 In other words, efforts 
to secure economy and efficiency in administration have 
led to proposals for the reorganization of the machinery 
of government. In Iowa, for example, the proposals have 
come through so-called Efficiency Engineers employed by 
the Joint Committee on Retrenchment and Reform; in 
Minnesota, through the Efficiency and Economy Commis¬ 
sion; in Illinois, through the Efficiency and Economy 
Committee; and in Nebraska, through the Joint Com¬ 
mittee on Reform of Legislative Procedure and Budget. 

The conditions which have provoked proposals for the 
reorganization of State government are summed up by 
the New York Committee of Inquiry in these words: 

The business of the State can reasonably be said to be run 
without any systematic plan whatever. Each department is 
conducted as an independent enterprise, and there is no effort at 
co-operation, no point or place where the various activities of the 


29 


30 


APPLIED HISTORY 


State government concentrate. The Governor appoints heads of 
departments, generally with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
and there his real power practically ends; the Legislature creates 
the departments, and after that merely appropriates funds for 
their support. . . . The condition therefore ensues that work 

is duplicated, labor is multiplied and expenditures become 
greater each succeeding year, because there is no way by which 
the business of government may be considered as a compact 
whole. To bring about a proper condition of control it seems 
necessary to establish new agencies of government endowed with 
power to examine and supervise the work of all the departments, 
to compel uniformity in methods of administration and account¬ 
ing, and then to assemble together the results obtained, so that 
the Legislature and the Governor may have accurate, complete 
and condensed information to aid them in properly exercising 
their legislative and executive duties. 11 

THE MINNESOTA PROPOSALS 

In Minnesota the proposals for reorganization have 
come from a body of thirty men appointed by Governor 
A. 0. Eberhart in October, 1913; and they are styled the 
Efficiency and Economy Commission. These men serve 
without pay and without financial aid from the State. 
Having begun its work in November, 1913, the Commis¬ 
sion published “A Plan for Reorganizing the Executive 
Branch of the State Government in Minnesota” in its 
Preliminary Report, which was transmitted to the Gov¬ 
ernor in May, 1914. 

From this report it appears that at the very outset 
the Commission resolved that it would not “recommend 
any changes affecting the functions of the state”, but 
confine itself to a consideration of “the methods of per¬ 
forming existing functions”: it would concern itself with 
“not what the State should do, but the way it should do 
it.” And so “the recommendations of the Commission 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 31 


add no powers or duties to the government. They create 
no new duties, no new rights on the part of the citizens. 
Nor do they in any way lessen or change the powers, 
duties and rights of the state government or of the citi¬ 
zens/ J In other words, the “object of the Commission is 
to recommend a plan by which the work of the state gov¬ 
ernment, whatever it is now or may be in the future, may 
be done well and done economically.’ ’ 12 

Moreover, the method of the Minnesota Commission 
has been to approach the problem from the social rather 
than from the individual viewpoint: it “has not inquired 
into the efficiency or the honesty of individual officers or 
employees. It is not looking for ‘graft/ It has tried to 
find what is wrong in the system of government, not in 
the work of individuals/’ From its study of the State 
government the Commission has come to the conclusion 
that ‘ ‘ the machine is built wrong, and no one can make it 
work well’ 7 : it says ‘ ‘ that the big trouble with the state 
government lay in the general organization and the gen¬ 
eral methods of finance, not in minor details”. And so, it 
boldly “recommends a reorganization from the top 
down”—a reorganization, moreover, which may for the 
most part be accomplished through legislative action 
without resorting to constitutional amendments. 13 

The main features which characterize the Minnesota 
proposals are: (1) the reorganization of the executive 
service; (2) the merit system in the civil service; and (3) 
the budget system of appropriating money. “These 
three features”, observes the Commission, “are all bound 
to one another. The full advantage can be gained only 
from all three together. The reorganization of the exec¬ 
utive service will bring about a much better budget sys¬ 
tem than would otherwise be possible. The budget 


32 


APPLIED HISTORY 


system will enforce economy on the reorganized adminis¬ 
tration. The merit system will prevent any possible 
abuse of the centralized power.” 14 

As viewed by the Commission the main defects in the 
executive branch of the State government — not only in 
Minnesota but in practically every other State in the 
Union — are (1) multiplicity of independent offices, de¬ 
partments, bureaus, boards, and commissions; (2) 
diversity in form of organization, with, however, a pre¬ 
dominance of the board system; (3) lack of unity and 
responsibility; (4) lack of an efficient system of civil 
service; (5) lack of definite responsibility; and (6) lack 
of a budget system. Accordingly, “the government is 
incoherent. There are a multitude of disconnected, un¬ 
affiliated departments and bureaus, over which neither 
the governor nor the legislature nor the people have 
effective control. For want of coordination, there is 
duplication of work and an unnecessary number of em¬ 
ployees/’ 15 

To remedy these defects the Commission proposes a 
plan which aims to secure unity, assure cooperation, 
centralize control, and fix responsibility. “Related 
bureaus will be grouped under a few executive depart¬ 
ments. Each department will be headed by a single 
director. The directors, with two exceptions, will be 
appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. 
The governor, the direct representative of the people, will 
thus be responsible for the entire administration. In¬ 
stead of fifty or sixty independent governments, there 
will be one State Administration. ’ ’ 16 

Then, “to prevent any possible abuse of the power 
lodged in the governor and the directors, the merit system 
in civil service is necessary. Under the Commission’s 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 33 


plan, all state employees — from the lowest np to and 
including the heads of bureaus who stand next under the 
directors — will be appointed under the civil service ex¬ 
amination system, and will be protected from removal for 
political or other improper reasons.” 17 

Finally, the budget system which the Commission pro¬ 
poses ‘‘ means the substitution of method for what is 
little better than madness. It means careful considera¬ 
tion of the expenditures as a whole. It means study of 
the relative needs instead of guess-work. This consider¬ 
ation will begin with the executive, acting as a unit. The 
governor will submit to the legislature complete esti¬ 
mates. The legislature w T ill no longer be assailed by the 
clamor of individual and even subordinate officers. It 
will be in a position to consider the state’s expenditures 
as one unit made up of related parts. Haphazard extrav¬ 
agance will give place to systematic consideration of 
appropriations. ” 18 

According to the plan proposed the reorganized State 
administration in Minnesota would consist of 

A. The Chief Executive 

B. The General Administration 

C. The Executive Departments 

The Chief Executive would include the offices of Gov¬ 
ernor and Lieutenant Governor — the Governor, of 
course, being the vital factor. Under the proposed plan 
the Governor would be the real head of the State adminis¬ 
tration. Elected by the people, he would be directly 
responsible to them for the conduct of the whole adminis¬ 
tration of State affairs. The heads or directors of the 
several executive departments would be appointed by 
him and subject to his direction. Thus, in the office of the 


3 


34 


APPLIED HISTORY 


Governor would center the administrative policies and 
activities of the State. 

The General Administration would not be “ a depart¬ 
ment but a group of offices, having no executive duties, 
but whose work is related in the nature of the case to all 
departments. ’ ’ The group would include the office of 
Attorney General, the office of Secretary of State, the 
office of Auditor of State, the office of Public Examiner, 
the Civil Service Commission, and the Tax Commission. 19 

The executive departments would include the seventy 
or more agencies or branches of the State administration. 
Indeed, the plan contemplates the grouping of all of the 
existing offices, bureaus, boards, and commissions into 
six executive departments as follows: (I) Department of 
Finance; (II) Department of Public Domain; (III) De¬ 
partment of Public Welfare; (IV) Department of Educa¬ 
tion; (V) Department of Labor and Commerce; and (VI) 
Department of Agriculture. 

Theoretically each department should have at its head 
a director appointed by the Governor. But as a matter 
of expediency the plan provides that the Department of 
Finance shall be under the State Treasurer, who is elect¬ 
ed by the people; the Department of Public Domain, 
under a director appointed by the Governor; the Depart¬ 
ment of Public Welfare, under a director appointed by 
the Governor; the Department of Labor and Commerce, 
under a director appointed by the Governor; the Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture, under a director appointed by the 
Governor; and finally, the Department of Education, 
under (1) a Board of Education appointed by the Gov¬ 
ernor and (2) a Board of Regents appointed by the 
Governor — a Director of Education being appointed by 
the Board of Education and a President of the State Uni¬ 
versity being appointed by the Board of Regents. 20 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 35 


The plan contemplates that “the important bureaus 
or divisions of the service now existing are to be retained 
as distinct bureaus under the several departments. 
These bureaus will be headed by single individuals and 
not by boards.” Indeed, throughout the proposed re¬ 
organization the single-headed principle rather than the 
board principle is preferred. That is to say, executive 
direction is given to individuals; while non-executive 
boards are retained chiefly for advisory, sub-legislative, 
and quasi-judicial functions. In reference to this feature 
of the proposed reorganization, the Commission says: 

Students in political science are all agreed that executive 
work should be done by individuals and not by boards. The 
average citizen has come to the same conclusion. The board 
system tends to delay and inefficiency. It dissipates responsi¬ 
bility. No one knows exactly who is to blame if work is done 
badly. Boards are necessary for sub-legislative and judicial 
work; they are useful to give advice; they are not suited to ad¬ 
ministrative tasks. Moreover, under the board system the gov¬ 
ernor has little control over the administration. The board 
members usually have overlapping terms. Each governor ap¬ 
points only a minority. Each board is a government by itself. 21 

The Minnesota plan places much emphasis upon the 
necessity of a “merit system” or “civil service system” 
in the selection and removal of persons connected with 
the administration of public affairs. According to the 
recommendations submitted, the merit system would be 
administered by a “Civil Service Commission, to consist 
of three members appointed by the governor with the 
consent of the senate. Their terms are to be six years, 
one being appointed every two years, so that the com¬ 
mission will not be the creature of a single administra¬ 
tion. The members are to serve without compensation. 


36 


APPLIED HISTORY 


The detailed work of the commission will be under the 
charge of a paid secretary to be appointed by the com¬ 
mission.” 22 

Moreover, the proposed plan provides for “the appli¬ 
cation of the merit system to all except a very limited 
number of positions. The exceptions include officers 
elected by the people, directors of departments, or other 
officers appointed by the governor with the consent of the 
senate, and members of unpaid boards. The instructors 
in the university and other state educational institutions 
will also be exempted from the law, on the ground that 
they are invariably chosen by reason of their special qual¬ 
ifications and without political influence. All other posi¬ 
tions, up to and including heads of bureaus and of 
institutions, are to be subject to the merit system and 
designated as in the ‘classified service.’ ” 23 

Fully as important in the scheme of reorganization as 
the merit system is the much neglected “budget system”: 
the latter would do for the finances of the State what the 
former would do for its service. Briefly, the main fea¬ 
tures of the budget system as recommended by the Com¬ 
mission are these: (1) all expenditures, with very few 
exceptions, should be authorized by biennial appropria¬ 
tions; (2) a careful study of proposed appropriations 
should be made by the executive branch of the govern¬ 
ment acting as a unit, subordinate officers and bureaus 
conferring with the directors of the several departments 
and the directors conferring freely with the Governor; 
(3) all recommendations for appropriations should be 
submitted in detail to the legislature by the Governor, 
along with estimated sources of revenues which will pro¬ 
vide for the total amount; and (4) the budget submitted 
by the Governor should be carefully considered by the 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 37 


proper committees of the legislature, but that body 
should not make increases in the amounts asked for by 
the executive. 

The budget system proposed by the Minnesota Com¬ 
mission “ provides for a thorough study of the needs of 
the state as a whole, and of each branch of the state ser¬ 
vice, by the executive and by the legislature through com¬ 
mittees organized systematically for that purpose. It 
provides the fullest possible information for the legis¬ 
lature as a basis for appropriations. It gives to the 
legislature absolute control over the broad purposes of 
expenditure; and while it leaves reasonable flexibility in 
the details, it makes the executive responsible to the legis¬ 
lature for the proper exercise of discretion with respect 
to those details. It would make the stated business a 
single unit.” 24 

THE ILLINOIS RECOMMENDATIONS 

In Illinois recommendations relative to the reorgan¬ 
ization of State government have emanated from an Ef¬ 
ficiency and Economy Committee established by the 
Forty-eighth General Assembly. Through a Preliminary 
Report addressed to the Forty-ninth General Assembly 
in June, 1914, this Committee directs attention to the 
importance of efficiency and economy in the administra¬ 
tion of the State government of Illinois by referring to 
the fact that the executive departments, offices, and insti¬ 
tutions employ about 6000 persons and expend annually 
about $17,000,000. The purposes of the Committee and 
the situation leading to its creation are clearly set forth 
in the resolution which reads as follows: 

Whereas, The General Assembly of the State of Illinois has 
from time to time created various commissions, boards, bureaus 
and other additions to the State Government; and, 


38 


APPLIED HISTORY 


Whereas, The duties of these various commissions, boards and 
bureaus in many cases overlap and conflict, one with the other; 
and, 

Whereas, The duties of these various commissions, boards and 
bureaus, etc., can in many instances be more efficiently and more 
economically performed by combining these various departments 
and abolishing those which are an unnecessary drain on the 
public treasury; and, 

Whereas, Owing to the marvelous growth of our state in all 
the departments of its government a thorough reorganization 
with a view to greater efficiency and greater economy is demand¬ 
ed ; now, therefore, be it 

Resolved, By the Senate of the State of Illinois, the 
House of Representatives Concurring therein, That a joint 
committee of eight (8) be appointed, composed of four (4) Sen¬ 
ators and four (4) Representatives, who shall have full power 
and authority to investigate all departments of the State Govern¬ 
ment, including all boards, bureaus and commissions which have 
been created by the General Assembly, such investigations to be 
made with a view of securing a more perfect system of account¬ 
ing, combining and centralizing the duties of the various depart¬ 
ments, abolishing such as are useless and securing for the State 
of Illinois such reorganization that will promote greater efficiency 
and greater economy in her various branches of government, 

Resolved, That the committee shall have whole power and 
authority to subpoena witnesses and to examine into and compel 
the production of books, papers and documents; 

Resolved, That the committee shall have full authority to 
employ expert accountants, attorneys, stenographers and other 
assistants necessary to carry on their investigations and make 
their report; 

Resolved, That the expenses of said committee and employees 
shall be paid out of any appropriation made therefor by the 
General Assembly upon voucher properly drawn upon the Audi¬ 
tor of Public Accounts properly itemized and signed and ap¬ 
proved by the chairman and secretary of the joint committee. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 39 


The committee shall conduct its investigations and report its 
findings and make its recommendations together with such bill or 
bills that it may deem proper to submit to the Forty-ninth 
General Assembly of the State of Illinois. 25 

With an appropriation of $40,000 for expenses, the 
Committee employed John A. Fairlie, Professor of Polit¬ 
ical Science in the University of Illinois, as Director of 
its investigations, which have been limited to the execu¬ 
tive department. 26 The recommendations submitted are 
confined to the reorganization of “ those offices and activi¬ 
ties which are under the Governor or which may be con¬ 
trolled by the General Assembly.” 

As a result of its investigations the Committee finds 
that there are ‘‘ about one hundred different departments 
of the executive organization unconnected and unsuper¬ 
vised except in so far as they were under the nominal 
supervision of the Governor, and in a number of instances 
lacking even that connection and supervision.” More¬ 
over, the number of offices, boards, and commissions cre¬ 
ated by statute — and even their organization, powers, 
and duties — over which the General Assembly may 
exercise full control, has been rapidly increasing. “Less 
than a third of those now in existence were established 
before 1870; more than a third of the present number 
have been created in the fourteen years from 1899 to 1913; 
and every session of the legislature sees the origin of 
several new authorities. New boards and officers have 
usually been created with little reference to previously 
existing authorities, either as to the forms of organiza¬ 
tion or the scope of their powers; and most of them are 
substantially independent of each other, except for the 
nominal supervision of the Governor, through his powers 
of appointment and removal.” 27 


40 


APPLIED HISTORY 


With regard to the condition of the executive de¬ 
partments the Committee finds “ disorganization and 
confusion”, “inefficiency and waste”, “unnecessary 
duplication of positions and salaries”, a “lack of proper 
supervision”, an “absence of cordial cooperation.” The 
present executive organization “fails to provide the 
General Assembly with adequate information or advice”; 
it “fails to give the general public a satisfactory knowl¬ 
edge of the work that is done, or any means for determin¬ 
ing the responsibility for what is not done or is done 
badly.” For these conditions the Committee does not 
blame the State officers: on the contrary, it declares that 
“the fault lies in the defective administrative organiza¬ 
tion now provided by law.” 28 

To remedy the situation the Committee recommends a 
plan which is not unlike that proposed by the Minnesota 
Commission. The problem in each State is about the 
same; and the plans proposed recognize substantially the 
same fundamental principles. In the first place, the Illi¬ 
nois Committee would seek reform through legislative 
action rather than through constitutional amendment: it 
does not propose to disturb the constitutionally elective 
officers — that is, the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, 
Secretary of State, Auditor of Public Accounts, Treas¬ 
urer, Superintendent of Public Instruction, and Attorney 
General — except to redistribute functions which are now 
subject to legislative control. 

Secondly, the Committee proposes that the “hundred 
executive departments be reorganized into not more than 
twelve departments, under department heads appointed 
by the Governor, and responsible to him for the proper 
conduct of their respective departments.” In such re¬ 
organization closely related services would be grouped 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 41 


together in the same department. Nor would there be 
much occasion for the creation of additional departments 
in the future since “new services when needed can be 
attached to some of the departments already estab¬ 
lished.” 29 While the Committee does not name the pro¬ 
posed leading departments it may be inferred that they 
would correspond in general to the classification or group 
heads which appear on page six of the Preliminary Re¬ 
port, namely: 

Finance Administration 
Education (including Libraries and Scientific 
Surveys) 

Charitable and Correctional Institutions 

Public Works and Conservation 

Agricultural Agencies 

Labor and Mining Agencies 

Public Health and Safety 

Control of Corporations 

Law Officers 

State Militia 

Miscellaneous 

Throughout this Preliminary Report of the Com¬ 
mittee emphasis is placed upon the coordination of the 
State administration, the centralization of authority in 
the office of the Governor, the responsibility of heads of 
departments to the Governor and of the Governor to the 
people, and the necessity of a “detailed budget of the 
appropriations required for the ensuing biennium, to¬ 
gether with an estimate of the receipts of the state from 
sources other than taxation during the biennium and a 
statement as to the amount required to be met by taxa¬ 
tion.” 30 


42 


APPLIED HISTORY 


THE NEBRASKA RECOMMENDATIONS 

The recommendations relative to the reorganization 
of State government in Nebraska come from a Joint Com¬ 
mittee (of the Senate and House) on the Reform of Legis¬ 
lative Procedure and Budget, authorized by legislative 
action in 1913, and are addressed to the Governor and 
members of the Thirty-fourth Session of the Nebraska 
Legislature. The report of this committee appeared as 
Bulletin No. 4 of the Nebraska Legislative Reference 
Bureau, under date of May 15, 1914, and with the title of 
j Reform of Legislative Procedure and Budget of Nebras¬ 
ka. 31 It differs from the Minnesota and Illinois reports 
in that it attacks the problem of reorganization from the 
legislative rather than from the executive side. To he 
sure the Committee does not ignore the executive branch 
of the government in proposing reforms, but it proceeds 
upon the principle that “If Nebraska is to have Econ¬ 
omy and Efficiency in State Affairs the Legislature 

MUST SET THE EXAMPLE .” 32 

Moreover, the recommendations are submitted under 
two heads: (1) those “for immediate action’’ and (2) 
those “for future action.” Among the most important 
recommendations for immediate action are: (a) sugges¬ 
tions relative to the drafting, form, size, introduction, 
printing, enrolling, engrossing, and filing of hills; (b) 
suggestions relative to the printing and distribution of 
the journals and calendars of the two houses; (c) sugges¬ 
tions relative to the number, membership, method of se¬ 
lection, meetings, and voting of committees; and (d) 
suggestions relative to the number, wages, and method of 
appointment of the employees of the two houses — all 
with a view to eliminating waste and improving the qual¬ 
ity of legislation. Especially important are the sugges- 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 43 


tions relative to the establishment of a bill-drafting 
division in connection with the Legislative Reference 
Bureau, the reduction of the number of committees, and 
the recording of votes taken in committee meetings. 33 

Still more fundamental are the following items listed 
for future action: (1) the submission to the people by 
initiative petition of an amendment to the Constitution 
providing for a unicameral legislature which shall consist 
of not less than thirty-three nor more than one hundred 
members; (2) the enactment of a comprehensive civil 
service law; (3) financial legislation which shall provide 
for a scientific budget of estimated expenditures and rev¬ 
enues which “ shall be prepared by the governor and 
recommended to the legislature in a special message”; 
(4) the consolidation and reorganization of the State ex¬ 
ecutive departments, bureaus, institutions, boards, com¬ 
missions, societies, and surveys; and (5) provision for an 
efficiency survey of the State government by experts with 
a view to the reorganization of the machinery of admin¬ 
istration and the introduction of up-to-date methods. 

THE OREGON PROPOSALS 

In Oregon the People’s Power League seems to have 
been responsible for the more or less sweeping proposals 
for the reorganization of State government which were 
submitted to the voters and defeated in 1912. These pro¬ 
posals would, among other things, abolish the State 
Senate and create a single chamber Legislative Assembly 
in which the Governor and members of his cabinet would 
have seats. Of the executive officers of the State the 
Governor and Auditor alone would be elected by the 
people. 

The Governor would by these proposals become the 


44 


APPLIED HISTORY 


real responsible head of the State administration. He 
would appoint the Attorney General, the Secretary of 
State, the State Treasurer, the State Printer, the Super¬ 
intendent of Public Instruction, the Secretary of Labor, 
and the State Business Manager — who together would 
constitute the Cabinet and hold office at the Governor’s 
pleasure. All public functions executed through boards, 
commissions, and institutions would be placed under the 
direct control of the Governor who would assume all 
responsibility for results. Moreover, the budget would 
be arranged by the Governor who would introduce all 
bills necessary for the appropriation of public money. 34 

SUMMARY 

Reforms in Commonwealth government are pending. 
The demand for economy and efficiency has brought on a 
discussion of the reorganization of the machinery of 
State government — particularly in the executive branch. 
Moreover, the plans for reorganization are neither revo¬ 
lutionary nor radical: they contain nothing which has not 
already been tested by actual experience. Rarely do the 
proposed changes involve constitutional amendment: on 
the contrary, they can usually be realized through legis¬ 
lation or administrative orders. Indeed, they are the 
most practical and businesslike reforms which have thus 
far been proposed in the history of American govern¬ 
ment. 

The purpose of the proposed reorganization is to 
secure greater economy and efficiency in the conduct of 
public affairs; and everywhere the plans suggested are 
characterized by three features: (1) the reorganization 
of the executive agencies with a view to centralizing 
authority and responsibility and making the Governor 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 45 


the real head of the State administration; (2) the intro¬ 
duction of a merit system or civil service system with a 
view to elevating the public service, removing it from 
politics, and making it more expert; and (3) the intro¬ 
duction of a budget system with a view to unifying the 
Stated finances and locating responsibility for expendi¬ 
tures. 35 

As to the method of reorganization it is nowhere pro¬ 
posed that the whole machinery of State government be 
overhauled at once. At the same time it is recognized 
that the outlines of comprehensive plans are essential to 
orderly reform: little can be accomplished through hap¬ 
hazard changes. These plans, moreover, should be the 
work of experts based upon reliable data secured through 
scientific surveys of existing organizations, institutions, 
and methods. Thus the starting point in the process of 
reorganization is the scientific survey of existing con¬ 
ditions. 


IV 

STATE GOVERNMENT IN IOWA 

Iowa was admitted into the Union in 1846 under a Con¬ 
stitution which served as the fundamental law of the 
Commonwealth for eleven years. In 1857 the present 
Constitution was adopted, and upon its provisions rests 
the structure of the government of Iowa to-day. This 
Constitution, which was modeled upon the organic law of 
the older States, hears the impress of pioneer days. It is 
brief and leaves the organization of the executive depart¬ 
ment and the distribution of executive functions largely 
to legislative determination. In a period of fifty-seven 
years it has been amended five times; but during the same 
period the people have five times declared themselves as 
opposed to the calling of a convention to revise its pro¬ 
visions. Thus the Constitution of Iowa is now one of a 
very few that have remained in force without total re¬ 
vision for more than a half century. 

The Constitution of 1857 provides for a State govern¬ 
ment consisting of three separate departments which are 
coordinate in power and authority; and it specifically 
declares that “no person charged with the exercise of 
powers properly belonging to one of these departments 
shall exercise any function appertaining to either of the 
others, except in cases hereinafter expressly directed or 
permitted. ’ ’ Only through constitutional amendment or 
revision may the fundamentals of State government in 
Iowa be changed. 


46 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 47 


THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 

The legislative department of the State government 
is organized on the bicameral plan. Originally the num¬ 
ber of Senators was limited to fifty and the number of 
Representatives to one hundred. But by amendment in 
1904 the number of Representatives was increased to one 
hundred and eight — each county being now entitled to 
at least one Representative and the nine counties having 
the largest population to one additional member. 

The members of the House of Representatives are 
chosen for a term of two years, while the members of the 
Senate are chosen for a term of four years. As the law 
now operates, at one biennial election twenty-one Sena¬ 
tors are chosen, and at the next succeeding election the 
remaining twenty-nine are chosen. The sessions of the 
General Assembly are biennial and are terminated at the 
discretion of the members. Each branch makes its own 
rules of procedure. 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 

The executive department of the State government 
has not been changed since the adoption of the Constitu¬ 
tion in 1857 — that is, the department has undergone no 
constitutional modification. According to Article IV the 
constitutional staff of this department consists of a Gov¬ 
ernor, a Secretary of State, an Auditor of State, and a 
Treasurer of State — all of whom are elected directly by 
the people for short terms. The Attorney General, pro¬ 
vided for in Article V on the Judiciary, properly belongs 
to this group of officers. 

Since there is no prohibition upon the creation of ad¬ 
ditional administrative offices, there has been a statutory 
elaboration of the executive department to meet the needs 


48 


APPLIED HISTORY 


of the growing Commonwealth. Indeed, the most remark¬ 
able feature of the history of State government in Iowa 
has been the establishment through legislative action of a 
large number of executive officers, boards, and commis¬ 
sions. Some have been created for temporary purposes 
and have disappeared; while others have been placed 
upon a permanent basis. Some are appointed by the 
Governor; some by the Governor with the consent of the 
Senate; some by the Governor with the consent of the 
Executive Council; and some by the Supreme Court. 
Some are chosen by the General Assembly; and some by 
voluntary associations. Some of the positions thus cre¬ 
ated are filled by the ex officio method. Finally, some of 
these officers are chosen by a combination of two of the 
methods named. It is a remarkable fact that of all these 
statutory officials only the Railroad Commissioners are 
elected directly by all the people of the State. 

The names, manner of appointment, term of office, 
compensation, and powers and duties of the existing stat¬ 
utory officers are given in Table I. Similarly the names, 
composition, method of selection, term of office, compen¬ 
sation, and powers and duties of the existing statutory 
boards, commissions, bureaus, departments and institu¬ 
tions are given in Table II. 

Among all of these State officers, boards, commissions, 
bureaus, and departments there is no coordinating power. 
With few exceptions each remains practically independ¬ 
ent of all the others. Each uses its influence in the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly to secure appropriations and extend its 
activities. But over their conduct the Governor has no 
real power of direction and supervision. Moreover, with¬ 
in the executive department of the State government 
there is no supervising budgetary authority. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 49 


TABLE I — Administrative Offices 

[It will be observed that in the following table only the principal administrative 
offices are listed — those offices, in other words, which may be said to be practically 
independent of any other office. The table, therefore, contains reference to by no 
means all of the offices or positions connected with the administration of State gov¬ 
ernment in Iowa. For instance, in the office of the Secretary of State there are the 
corporation clerks and the positions connected with the Motor Vehicle Bureau; in 
the office of the Auditor of State there are, among others, six bank examiners; the 
Attorney General has the advice and assistance of two special counsels; the Railroad 
Commissioners appoint a commerce counsel; and in the Bureau of Labor Statistics 
there are three factory inspectors. In fact in the various State offices, boards, and 
commissions, in addition to stenographers, janitors, messengers, and purely clerical 
assistants, there are more than three hundred subordinate positions which are of 
considerable importance in the system of State administration — not to mention the 
large number of persons officially connected with the State educational institutions 
and the State charitable and penal institutions.] 


Name of 
Office 

How Chosen 

Term of 
Office 

Yearly 

Salary 

Powers and Duties 

Governor of 
the State of 
Iowa 

Elected by the 
oeople of the 
State 

2 yrs. 

$5000 a year 
and $1200 
for his ser¬ 
vices as a 
member of the 
Executive 
Council. 

$600 a year 
for house rent 

Charged with the faithful execution 
of the laws. Makes recommenda¬ 
tions to the General Assembly and 
has power to convene that body in 
extra sessions. Has a limited veto 
power, appoints a large number of 
officers, boards and commissions, 
and has pardoning power. Is com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the State 

Lieutenant 

Governor 

Elected by 
people of 

State 

2 yrs. 

$2000 

Presides over Senate. Acts as Gov¬ 
ernor in case of absence or vacancy 

Secretary of 
State 

Elected by the 
people of the 
State 

2 yrs. 

$3600 

Countersigns all commissions and 
proclamations issued by the Gov¬ 
ernor. Prepares laws for publica¬ 
tion. Certificates of nomination for 
State offices are filed in his office. 

Auditor of 
State 

Elected by the 
people of the 
State 

2 yrs. 

$3600 

Keeps an account of all revenues, 
funds, and incomes of the State, 
and of all disbursements. Draws 
all warrants on State Treasurer in 
accordance with law. Apportions 
the interest on the permanent school 
fund. Has supervision of banking, 
and loan and trust companies, etc. 

Treasurer of 
State 

Elected by the 
people of the 
State 

2 yrs. 

$3600 

Receives and disburses the State 
revenues 

Attorney 

General 

Elected by the 
people of the 
State 

2 yrs. 

$5000 

Represents the State whenever it is 
a party to a suit. Has charge of 
the prosecution of all criminal cases 
in the Supreme Court. He is the 
legal adviser of the State officers 
and the General Assembly. Charged 
with supervision of enforcement of 
laws throughout the State 

Adjutant 

General 

Appointed by 
Governor 

At pleas¬ 
ure of 
Governor 

$2200 

Issues and transmits all military 
orders of tne Governor. Keeps 

muster rolls and has charge of mili¬ 
tary property of State 


4 













































50 


APPLIED HISTORY 


TABLE I — Continued 


Name of 
Office 

How Chosen 

Term of 
Office 

Yearly 

Salary 

■ "i 

Powers and Duties 

Superintend¬ 
ent of Public 
Instruction 

Appointed by 
Governor 
(after 1915) 

4 yrs. 

$4000 

Has general supervision over the 
rural, graded, and high schools of 
the State 

Commissioner 
of Insurance 

Appointed by 
Governor with 
consent of 
Senate 

4 yrs. 

$3000 

Has general supervision, control, 
and direction of all insurance busi¬ 
ness in Iowa. Has charge of the 
execution of the laws of the State 
relative to insurance 

Iowa 

Industrial 

Commissioner 

Appointed by 
Governor with 
consent of 
Senate 

6 yrs. 

$3000 

To make rules and regulations for 
carrying out the provisions of the 
Employers’ Liability and Workmen’s 
Compensation Act. Has power to 
subpoena witnesses, administer 

oaths, and examine books and rec¬ 
ords of parties to a proceeding or 
investigation 

State Printer 

Elected by 

General 

Assembly 

2 yrs. 

Paid for work 
on schedule 
fixed by law 

Must keep his office at the capital, 
and maintain a printing plant suf¬ 
ficient to do all work required 

State Binder 

Elected by 

General 

Assembly 

2 yrs. 

Paid for work 
on a schedule 
fixed by law 

Binds the laws, journals, and other 
publications issued by authority of 
the General Assembly 

Custodian of 

Public 

Buildings 

Appointed bv 
Governor with 
consent of 
Senate 

2 yrs. 

$1500 

Has charge of Capitol Building and 
grounds. Has charge of the jani¬ 
tors and police force. Contracts for 
fuel, light, water, ice, etc., subject 
to approval of Executive Council 

Dairy and 

Food 

Commissioner 

Appointed by 
Governor 

2 yrs. 

$2700 1 

Inspects creameries and dairies, en¬ 
forces the pure food laws, the stock 
food and seen laws, and the paint 
law. Issues licenses for the sale of 
milk and cream 

State Fire 
Marshal 

Appointed by 
Governor with 
consent of 
Senate 

4 yrs. 

$2500 

Devotes his entire time to the work. 
Appoints deputies and inspectors to 
investigate the cause and origin of 
every fire and make a record of the 
same. Examines buildings and 

compels owners to render same safe 
from fire. Requires teachers to hold 
fire drills 

Hotel 

Inspector 

The Civil 
Engineer or 
State Board 
of Health 

7 yrs. 

$1500 1 

Required to inspect every hotel once 
each year or oftener on the com¬ 
plaint of three or more patrons. 
Enforces laws relative to construc¬ 
tion, fire escapes, and sanitation 

State 

Inspectors 
of Oils 

Governor 
appoints 14 
inspectors, one 
of whom is 
designated as 
Chief 

Inspector 

2 yrs. 

Fees not to 
exceed $150 
per month for 
chief and 
$100 for 
others 

Examine and test all oils offered for 
sale and mark the same approved or 
rejected 

State Mine 
Inspectors 

Governor ap¬ 
points three 
and assigns 
each to a 
district 

3 yrs. 

$1800 1 

Examine and inspect the mines of 
the State and enforce the laws rela¬ 
tive to safety and sanitation therein 

Inspector of 
Bees 

Appointed by 
Governor 

2 yrs. 

$3 per day 
and expenses 
for time 
spent, not to 
exceed $1000 
a year 

Inspects apiaries for disease known 
as “foul brood” to give instructions 
for treatment of same. May destroy 
infected colonies if necessary 








































































REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 51 


TABLE I — Continued 


Name of 
Office 

How Chosen 

Term of 
Office 

Yearly 

Salary 

Powers and Duties 

State 

Inspectors 
of Boats 

Appointed by 
Governor; as 
many as 
necessary 

2 yrs. 

Fees collected 

Inspects sail and steamboats plying 
upon the inland waters of the State, 
and issues certificates for same. 
Also issues certificates to engineers 
and pilots 

Fish and 

Game Warden 

Appointed by 
Governor 

3 yrs. 

$2200 

Has charge of the restocking and 
distribution of fish and game in the 
State. Appoints numerous deputies 
to aid in the enforcement of the fish 
and game laws of the State 

State 

Veterinary 

Surgeon 

Appointed by 
Governor 

3 yrs. 

$1800 

Has supervision of all contagious 
and infectious diseases among do¬ 
mestic animals within the State or 
in transit through the State. Is ex 
officio a member of the Department 
of Agriculture and the Commission 
of Animal Health 

Director of 
Weather and 
Crop Service 

Appointed by 
Governor on 
recommenda¬ 
tion of State 
Board of 
Agriculture 

2 yrs. 

$1500 

Establishes two or more volunteer 
weather and crop stations in each 
county. Tabulates reports for per¬ 
manent records of climate and 
crops. Issues publications relative 
to weather and crops 


1 Entitled to necessary traveling expenses. 


TABLE II — Boards, Commissions, Bureaus, Departments 

and Institutions 


Name 

Composition 

How Chosen 

Term of 
Office 

Compensa¬ 

tion 

Powers and Duties 

Executive 

Council 

Four members 

Governor, 
Secretary of 
State, Auditor 
of State, 
Treasurer of 
State, ex officio 

2 yrs. 

Governor re¬ 
ceives $1200 
a year for his 
services on 
the Executive 
Council 

Equalization of as¬ 
sessments, canvassing 
of election returns, 
superintendence of 

census. Procures 
necessary supplies for 
State offices. Audits 
and approves ac¬ 
counts of a large 
number of State of¬ 
ficers and employees 

Board of 
Control of 
State 

Institutions 

Three members 

Appointed by 
the Governor 
with the con¬ 
sent of the 
Senate 

6 yrs. 

$3000 a year 

Has general manage¬ 
ment and control of 
all the State chari¬ 
table and penal insti¬ 
tutions 

Board of 
Education 

Nine members 

Appointed by 
the Governor 
with the con¬ 
sent of the 
Senate 

6 yrs. 

$7 a day 

Has general super¬ 
vision and manage¬ 
ment of the affairs of 
the three higher edu¬ 
cational institutions 

of the State, and the 
College for the Blind 

Board of 

Railroad 

Commissioners 

— 

Three members 

Elected by the 
people of the 
State 

4 yrs. 

$2200 a year 

To enforce laws of 
the State relative to 
railroads and express 
companies and prose¬ 
cute violations 














































































52 


APPLIED HISTORY 


TABLE II — Continued 


Name 

Composition 

How Chosen 

Term of 
Office 

Compensa¬ 

tion 

Powers and Duties 

Bureau of 
Labor 

Statistics 

One 

Commissioner 

Appointed by 
the Governor 

2 yrs. 

$1800 per year 

The collection of data 
relative to the condi¬ 
tions surrounding the 
employment of labor. 
Inspects factories and 
work-shops and en¬ 
forces the laws rela¬ 
tive to sanitation and 
safety of employees. 
Enforces child labor 
law 

State Board 
of Health 

Five members 
— a civil and 
sanitary engi¬ 
neer and four 
physicians 

Appointed by 
the Governor, 
Secretary of 
State and 
Auditor of 
State 

5 yrs. 

Engineer 
receives not 
to exceed $8 
per day nor 
more than 
$2500 per 
year. Other 
members re¬ 
ceive $900 
per year for 
all their 
services to the 
State 

Executes and enforces 
all the laws, rules 
and regulations rela¬ 
tive to public health, 
and the law relative 
to the record of mar¬ 
riages, births, and 
deaths 

Board of 

Parole 

Three members 

Appointed by 
the Governor, 
confirmed by 
Senate 

6 yrs. 

$10 per day 

Must hold at least 
four sessions each 
year. May establish 
rules and regulations 
under which prison¬ 
ers in the penitenti¬ 
aries other than life 
prisoners may be pa¬ 
roled. Recommends 

persons for pardon to 
the Governor 

Board of 

Educational 

Examiners 

Five members 

Three ex 
officio mem¬ 
bers, viz. 
Superintend¬ 
ent of Public 
Instruction, 
President 

State Univer¬ 
sity, President 
State Teachers’ 
College, and 
two appointed 
by Governor, 
one of whom 
must be a 
woman 

Term of 
appointed 
members 
is four 
years 

The ex officio 
members re¬ 
ceive only 
actual ex¬ 
penses, while 
the non-sal- 
aried members 
receive in 
addition $3 
per day 

Prepares questions 

for the examinations 
conducted by the 
county superintend¬ 
ents, as well as those 
conducted by the 
Board itself. Passes 
upon the qualifica¬ 
tions of all those de¬ 
siring to teach in 
Iowa and issues va¬ 
rious grades of cer¬ 
tificates, entitling per¬ 
sons to teach 

Board of 

Dental 

Examiners 

Five members 

Appointed by 
the Governor 

5 yrs. 

$5 per day 1 

Examine and license 
applicants having di¬ 
plomas from a repu¬ 
table dental school to 
practice dentistry in 
Iowa 

Board of Law 
Examiners 

Five members 

Attorney Gen¬ 
eral ex officio 
and four mem¬ 
bers appointed 
by the Su¬ 
preme Court 

2 yrs. 

Determined by 
Supreme 

Court. At 
present $15 
per day paid 
out of exam¬ 
ination fees 

Examine and pass 
upon the qualifica¬ 
tions of persons de¬ 
siring to practice law 
in Iowa 


















































REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 53 


TABLE II — Continued 


Name 

Composition 

How Chosen 

Term of 
Office 

Compensa¬ 

tion 

Powers and DutieJ 

Board of 

Medical 

Examiners 

Five members 

The physicians 
of the State 
Board of 
Health. Its 
secretary is 
the Secretary 
of the State 
Board of 
Health 

While on 
Board of 
Health 

Members re¬ 
ceive S8 1 per 
day for actual 
time spent in 
work, except 
the secretary 

To examine and li¬ 
cense persons desir¬ 
ing to practice medi¬ 
cine or osteopathy 

Board of 

Optometry 

Examiners 

Five members 

The secretary 
and one physi¬ 
cian of the 
Board of 
Health, and 
three optome¬ 
trists recom¬ 
mended by the 
Iowa State 
Association of 
Optometrists 

I yr. 

Each member 
except the 
secretary re¬ 
ceives IS 1 for 
each day 
actually spent 
in discharging 
his duties. 
Secretary re¬ 
ceives only his 
expenses 

Examine and license 
persons desiring to 
practice optometry, t. 
e., measuring the 

powers of vision and 
fitting glasses without 
the aid of drugs 

Commissioners 
of Pharmacy 

Three members 

Appointed by 
the Governor 

3 yrs. 

\ 

$5 a day for 
each day 
actually 
employed 1 

Conducts examinations 
of those applying for 
certificates as regis¬ 
ter e d pharmacists, 
makes annual renew¬ 
al of certificates, can¬ 
cels registration of 
pharmacists upon con¬ 
viction of violation of 
liquor laws. Ap¬ 
points a secretary and 
treasurer 

Board of 
Examiners for 
Mine 

Inspectors, etc. 

Five members 

Appointed by 
the Executive 
Council 

2 yrs. 

$5 per day 1 

Examine and issue 
certificates to those 
qualified to act as 
mine inspectors, hoist¬ 
ing engineers and 
mine foremen 

Board of 
Voting 

Machine 

Commissioners 

Three members 

Appointed by 
the Governor 

5 yrs. 

Fees for ex¬ 
amination and 
report of 
machines not 
to exceed 
$1500 and 
reasonable ex¬ 
penses paid by 
parties apply¬ 
ing for exam¬ 
ination and 
report 

To examine and re¬ 
port upon the capac¬ 
ity, accuracy, and ef¬ 
ficiency of voting ma¬ 
chines. Machines not 
approved by the Com¬ 
mission cannot be 
used at any election 
in Iowa 

State Highway 
Commission 

Three members 

Dean of 
Engineering at 
Iowa State 
College at 
Ames and two 
persons ap¬ 
pointed by the 
Governor 

4 yrs. 

Two members 
appointed by 
Governor 
entitled to $10 
a day, but not 
to exceed 
$1000 a year 

To devise and adopt 
plans of highway con¬ 
struction, and to dis¬ 
seminate to road of¬ 
ficials information rel¬ 
ative to the improve¬ 
ment of highways and 
the cost of materials. 
May remove county 
engineers 




















































54 


APPLIED HISTORY 


TABLE II — Continued 


Name 

Composition 

How Chosen 

Teem of 
Office 

Compensa¬ 

tion 

Powers and Duties 

State Board of 
Agriculture 

Nineteen 

members 

The Governor, 
the President 
of the Agricul¬ 
tural College, 
the State Food 
and Dairy 
Commissioner 
and the State 
Veterinarian 
ex officio, and 
in addition a 
President, 
Vice-President, 
and one 
director from 
each congres¬ 
sional district 
are elected at 
an agricultural 
convention 
provided for 
by law 

President 
and Vice- 
President 
are elected 
for 1 yr. 
The dis¬ 
trict direc¬ 
tors for 2 
yrs. Sec¬ 
retary and 
Treasurer 
for 1 yr. 

The elective 
members re¬ 
ceive $4 per 
day and mile¬ 
age at 5 cents 
per mile in 
connection 
with work 
pertaining to 
State Fair 

The Board elects its 
own Secretary and 
Treasurer, who be¬ 
come members of the 
Board. The Board is 
charged with the duty 
of promoting the in¬ 
terests of agriculture, 
agricultural education, 
animal and other in¬ 
dustries of the State. 
The Board are the 
custodians of the State 
Fair Grounds with 
full power to hold and 
manage the State 
Fair. The Board is 
in charge of the af¬ 
fairs of State Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture 

Commission of 
Animal Health 

Five members, 
two veterina¬ 
rians, State 
veterinary 
surgeon, and 
two stock- 
raisers 

Appointed by 
the Governor 

3 yrs. for 
veterina¬ 
rians ; two 
yrs. for 
stock- 
raisers 

$200 per year 
for the veter¬ 
inarians, ex¬ 
cept the State 
Veterinary, 
who serves 
without pay. 
The other two 
members 
receive $100 
per year and 
traveling 
expenses 

Has nower to make 
regulations to prevent 
ar suppress contagious 
or infectious diseases 
among animals. The 
State Veterinary Sur¬ 
geon and the two vet¬ 
erinarians on the 
commission constitute 
a board for examina¬ 
tion of applicants to 
practice veterinary 
medicine, surgery, and 
dentistry in Iowa 

Geological 

Board 

Five members 

The Governor, 
Auditor, and 
Presidents of 
the State Uni¬ 
versity, the 
Agricultural 
College, and 
the Iowa 
Academy of 
Sciences ex 
officio 

While 

holding 

offices 

named 

Actual 
expenses 
incurred in 
attending to 
their duties 

Appoints a State Ge¬ 
ologist and assistants 
recommended by him. 
Tne State Geologist 
directs the Iowa Geo¬ 
logical Survev and re¬ 
ports on the natural 
resources of the State, 
including ores, coals, 
clays, building stones, 
and other useful mate¬ 
rials 

Board of 
Curators of 
the State 
Historical 
Society of 

Iowa 

Eighteen 

members 

Nine appointed 
by the Gov¬ 
ernor and nine 
elected by the 
members of 
the Society 

2 yrs. 

None 

Has charge of the af¬ 
fairs of the State His¬ 
torical Society of 
Iowa located at Iowa 
City. Its chief func¬ 
tion is the collection 
of a library and to se¬ 
cure and publish facts 
relative to the history 
of Iowa 








































REORGANIZATION OP STATE GOVERNMENT 55 


TABLE II — Continued 


Name 

Composition 

How Chosen 

Term of 
Office 

Compensa¬ 

tion 

Powers and Duties 

Library 

Commission 

Seven members 

The State Li¬ 
brarian, State 
Superintendent 
of Public In¬ 
struction and 
President of 
the University 
ex officio. 

Four appointed 
by the 
Governor 

5 yrs. 

None 1 

Elects a secretary and 
other assistants, aids 
any community desir¬ 
ing to establish and 
maintain a public li¬ 
brary, maintains a 
traveling library, con¬ 
ducts a summer li¬ 
brary school, and 
maintains a clearing¬ 
house for the ex¬ 
change of periodicals 

Board of 

Library 

Trustees 

Nine members 

The Governor, 
Secretary of 
State, Super¬ 
intendent of 
Public In¬ 
struction and 
Judges of Su¬ 
preme Court 
ex officio 
members 

While hold¬ 
ing the 
office which 
makes 
them 
members 

No 

compensation 

Elects a State Libra¬ 
rian for the State Li¬ 
brary and Curator for 
the Historical Depart¬ 
ment of the State 
Library. Has charge 
of the affairs of the 
State Library, His¬ 
torical Department, 

Hall of Archives, all 
located at Des Moines 


i Entitled to necessary traveling expenses. 
























56 


APPLIED HISTORY 


Nor can the Executive Council — which is composed 
ex officio of the Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor of 
State, and Treasurer of State — be regarded as in any 
real sense the head of the State administration or as a 
real factor in the coordination of the State government of 
Iowa. Although its ex officio members are all constitu¬ 
tional officers, the Council itself is a creation of the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly. Its power to remove certain officials for 
causes stated in the law does not give it any real power of 
administrative direction; and its duties relative to the 
auditing and allowing of certain accounts are not in the 
nature of budget control. The State budget is not only 
voted by the General Assembly but it is also made up by 
the committees of that body. 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

By the Constitution of 1857 the judicial power is 
“ vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, and such 
other courts, inferior to the Supreme Court, as the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly may from time to time establish.” Under 
the authority thus granted, the General Assembly has 
made it possible for cities of four thousand inhabitants 
(not being county seats) to establish superior courts 
which when so established supersede the police or may¬ 
or’s court and have concurrent jurisdiction with the dis¬ 
trict court in all civil matters, except in probate matters 
and actions for divorce, alimony, and separate main¬ 
tenance. 

As originally organized under the provisions of the 
Constitution the Supreme Court consisted of three 
judges, but the General Assembly was authorized to in¬ 
crease the number after 1860. Up to date four additional 
judges have been provided for, so that the Supreme Court 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 57 


now consists of seven members. The district court orig¬ 
inally consisted of one judge, and the State was divided 
into eleven judicial districts. Since 1860 under constitu¬ 
tional authority the number of judicial districts has been 
increased to twenty-one and the number of judges to fifty- 
nine. In all cases the judges are chosen by popular elec¬ 
tion. Moreover, the Thirty-fifth General Assembly 
provided for the nomination and election of judges on a 
non-partisan ballot; but the Governor by that legislation 
was not authorized to recommend candidates to the 
people. 

There has been considerable agitation among the mem¬ 
bers of the bar of the State for reforms in judicial pro¬ 
cedure; but the appointment of judges, the recall of 
judges, and the recall of judicial decisions have not thus 
far been seriously demanded by any very large number 
of people. The absence of agitation on these subjects is 
partly due to the uniformly high character of the bench. 

SUMMARY 

Thus it appears that since the adoption of the Consti¬ 
tution of 1857 there has been little constitutional change 
in the structure of State government in Iowa; for at no 
time has a total revision of the Constitution been effected 
or favored by the people. The demands for expansion 
have been met chiefly through a statutory elaboration of 
the executive branch by the creation of new administra¬ 
tive offices, boards, commissions, bureaus, and depart¬ 
ments. Nor has there been thus far any considerable 
demand in Iowa for the reorganization of the State gov¬ 
ernment. 


y 


PROPOSED REORGANIZATION OF STATE 
GOVERNMENT IN IOWA 

Apart from the agitation of such questions as the regula¬ 
tion of primary elections, equal suffrage, the initiative 
and referendum, and the debates on the establishment of 
the Board of Control of State Institutions in 1898 and the 
creation of the State Board of Education in 1909, there 
has been little or no discussion of the problem of the re¬ 
organization of State government in Iowa until very 
recently. Indeed, a lively interest in the problems of 
reorganization seems first to have found expression in 
the Thirty-fifth General Assembly which, besides endors¬ 
ing the short ballot principle by providing for the ap¬ 
pointment of the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction, the Clerk of the Supreme Court, and the 
Supreme Court Reporter, authorized the Joint Committee 
on Retrenchment and Reform to employ “ expert account¬ 
ants and efficiency engineers’’ and to “institute such 
changes in the administration of public affairs as will 
promote the efficiency and economical administration of 
the affairs of the State in its various departments.” 36 

It was in accordance with the legislation of March 17, 
1913, that the firm of Quail, Parker & Co. was engaged to 
assist the Joint Committee on Retrenchment and Reform 
and under the direction and supervision of that com¬ 
mittee “to examine and report upon the existing pro¬ 
cedures incident to the transaction of the business of the 


58 


REORGANIZATION OP STATE GOVERNMENT 59 


State in the various offices and departments located at the 
seat of government in the City of Des Moines; and to 
make recommendations with a view to the betterment 
thereof.’ ,37 The sum of $10,000 was appropriated to meet 
the expenses of the proposed investigations. On Septem¬ 
ber 13, 1913, the work of the ‘ ‘ expert accountants and 
efficiency engineers” was terminated under instructions 
from the Committee, and their final report is submitted 
under date of December 21,1913. 38 

From the final report — which fills 241 pages of close¬ 
ly typewritten matter — it appears that the Efficiency 
Engineers, after making preliminary examinations of all 
the offices and departments located at the State capital, 
proceeded with detailed investigations of the office of 
Governor, the office of the Auditor of State, the office of 
the Treasurer of State, the office of the Secretary of 
State, the office of the Executive Council, the office of the 
Board of Control, the office of the Board of Education, 
the office of the Custodian of Public Buildings, and the 
office of the Dairy and Food Commissioner. A report on 
the Department of Agriculture was presented on March 
25, 1913, and a preliminary report on the heating plant 
was presented on May 21, 1913. Other detailed investi¬ 
gations were curtailed owing to the lack of sufficient funds 
to carry on the work. 

Besides suggesting more modern methods and recom¬ 
mending numerous economies in the work of the several 
offices and departments — especially in the executive 
branch of the government — the Efficiency Engineers 
make some far-reaching recommendations relative to 
“the reorganization of the executive functions” of State 
government. And they direct attention to the fact that 
the adoption of what they call their “basic plan of re- 


60 


APPLIED HISTORY 


organization ’’ would not require the amendment or re¬ 
vision of the State Constitution. In other words, the 
reforms proposed could be brought about through ordi¬ 
nary legislative action. 

With respect to the legislative branch of the govern¬ 
ment the report proposes no organic change, but strongly 
urges the organization of a well equipped legislative ref¬ 
erence bureau in connection with the State Library. The 
functions of such a bureau would be to collect information 
relative to current legislative problems, to draft bills for 
the members of the General Assembly, to furnish other 
departments of government with information relative to 
the methods and precedents of other States, and to pre¬ 
pare and issue daily a record of all bills and resolutions 
introduced in the Senate and House of Representatives 
during the session of the General Assembly. 39 

The judicial department of the State government was 
given only a cursory examination by the Efficiency Engi¬ 
neers, who offer no recommendations in their report but 
call attention to a plan for the reorganization of the 
judiciary recently proposed by William R. Vance, Dean 
of the College of Law of the University of Minnesota, in 
an address delivered on January 15, 1914, before the Bar 
Association of South Dakota — which plan they “believe 
is well worthy of consideration. ” 40 

Thus the “basic plan of reorganization” proposed in 
the report of the Efficiency Engineers relates primarily to 
the executive branch of the State government, and calls 
for no alterations in the State Constitution. It recog¬ 
nizes the fundamental principles of (1) the short ballot, 
(2) the concentration of authority and the location of 
responsibility, (3) the scientific budget, (4) the merit 
system, and (5) business efficiency. 


REORGANIZATION OP STATE GOVERNMENT 61 


In the first place, the plan proposes the union of the 
offices of the Auditor of State and the Treasurer of State 
through the establishment of a new department to he 
known as the Finance Department. Similarly the estab¬ 
lishment of a new department to be termed the Legal 
Department is proposed through the union of the offices 
of the Secretary of State and the Attorney General. This 
union of offices would in fact be simply a union or re¬ 
arrangement of the functions and duties prescribed by 
legislation, without affecting the constitutional status of 
the offices. 41 In addition the plan proposes to create (1) 
the office of State Purchasing Agent, (2) an official known 
as the Chief Accountant, and (3) a civil service commis¬ 
sion or bureau organized to administer the merit system 
which is to be used in filling all executive and adminis¬ 
trative positions except the constitutional offices and the 
heads of the seven departments. 

Under the direction of the Auditor of State and the 
Treasurer of State, the new Finance Department would 
control the whole accounting of the State government. 
Moreover, the creation of this new department contem¬ 
plates the adoption of a scientific method of budget con¬ 
trol, a scientific accounting system, and an independent 
audit and examination of accounts. 42 

The proposed new Legal Department would be com¬ 
prised of the offices of the Secretary of State and the 
Attorney General and would handle all matters of legal 
record and justice. Here, it will be observed, the office of 
the Attorney General is classed with the executive di¬ 
vision of the government; while in the State Constitution 
it is provided for in the article dealing with the judicial 
department. In the plan for this new department the 
Secretary of State is “in charge of the Executive and 


62 


APPLIED HISTORY 


Legislative records, and the Motor Vehicle Bureau; while 
the Attorney General will conduct his branch on similar 
lines to those at present existing.” 43 

Having thus outlined the reorganization or redis¬ 
tribution of the functions of what may be called the ‘ ‘ gen¬ 
eral administration offices”, the Efficiency Engineers 
propose the further rearrangement, classification, or 
grouping of the executive functions and activities of the 
State government into the following seven departments: 

I. The Department of Agriculture 

II. The Department of Commerce and Industries 

III. The Department of Public Works 

IV. The Department of Public Safety 

V. The Department of Public Health 

VI. The Department of Education 

VII. The Department of Charities and Corrections 

To one or another of these seven departments all of 
the existing sub-divisions of the executive branch of the 
government would be assigned. Each department is to 
be under the immediate control and direction of a Direc¬ 
tor General. The Governor shall himself assume the 
portfolio of Director General of the Department of Public 
Safety. The heads of the other six departments shall be 
appointed by the Governor, but such appointments shall 
be subject to ratification by the Senate. 44 

Moreover, the Executive Council as now constituted 
is to be abolished entirely, and a new Executive Council, 
consisting of the Director Generals of the seven depart¬ 
ments, is to be created. This new Executive Council 
would serve as a kind of executive cabinet and the Gov¬ 
ernor would be its chairman. 45 Thus, it is clear that 
under the proposed plan of reorganization the Governor 
would be the real head of the State administration. 


VI 


REORGANIZATION IN IOWA ACCORDING TO 
THE MINNESOTA PLAN 

Of all the proposals for the reorganization of State gov¬ 
ernment those presented in the Preliminary Report of 
the Efficiency and Economy Commission of Minnesota are 
perhaps the most complete, the most scientific, and the 
most practical. They embody the conclusions of a group 
of thirty men, among whom there are eight lawyers, six 
bankers, two capitalists, two merchants, one real estate 
dealer, one hotel proprietor, one laundry proprietor, one 
political writer, two editors, two professors, one clerk of 
the district court, one member of the Board of Health, 
one member of the Educational Commission, and the 
President of the State Federation of Labor. Again, 
eight members of the Commission have had experience in 
the State legislature, one on the district bench, and one as 
secretary to the Governor. It is also worthy of mention 
that the Commission has had the benefit of the counsel of 
Mr. E. Dana Durand, former Director of the United 
States Census, who served in the capacity of Consulting 
Statistician. 46 

In view of the obvious merits of the Minnesota plan of 
reorganization, the fact that it is based upon and framed 
to meet conditions which actually exist, and the fact that 
the institutions, methods, and conditions of government 
and administration in Minnesota are much the same as 
those which prevail in Iowa, the writer ventures to con- 


63 


64 


APPLIED HISTORY 


elude this paper with a general outline of executive 
reorganization in Iowa according to the Minnesota pro¬ 
posals. Moreover, the writer wishes it to be distinctly 
understood that this outline is presented not so much as a 
recommendation for Iowa but rather as a point of de¬ 
parture and as a basis of comparison in the study of the 
problems of reorganization in this State. Furthermore, 
the reader is asked to bear in mind two things: (1) the 
outline given below is not everywhere a literal transla¬ 
tion of the Minnesota plan, since in adapting the features 
of that plan to Iowa conditions and institutions many 
necessary modifications have been made by the writer; 
and (2) the outline of executive reorganization in Iowa is 
general in character, and does not aim to classify and 
locate every branch of the executive service. An outline 
of the scheme, rather than the details of reorganization, 
is here presented. 


GENERAL FEATURES 

The reorganization of the executive branch of the 
State government of Iowa, according to the proposed 
Minnesota plan, would be characterized by four general 
features: (1) a reorganization of the executive service in 
which the Governor, as the real head of a unified adminis¬ 
trative system, would have the power of appointing and 
removing the directors of the several departments (sub¬ 
ject perhaps to confirmation by the Senate); (2) a merit 
or civil service system in which all positions in the execu¬ 
tive service, except the present constitutionally elective 
officers, directors of departments, and the staff of the 
State educational institutions would be filled in accord¬ 
ance with civil service regulations; (3) a scientific budget 
which would be arranged by the Governor in conference 


REORGANIZATION OP STATE GOVERNMENT 65 


with the directors of departments, who in turn would 
confer freely with subordinates in the several offices and 
bureaus; (4) a department and bureau organization based 
upon the single-headed principle, with perhaps a depart¬ 
ment board for advisory, sub-legislative, or quasi-legis¬ 
lative functions. 

THE GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 

According to the Minnesota plan the General Admin¬ 
istration in Iowa would not be organized as a department 
but would be regarded rather as 4 ‘ a group of offices . . 

. . whose work is related in the nature of the case to all 

departments.” 47 In this group would be included the 
following branches and officers of the service: 

Legal Department: Attorney General — elected by the 
people. 

Recording Office: Secretary of State — elected by the 
people. 

Accounting Department : Auditor of State — elected by 
the people. To keep financial records, audit all dis¬ 
bursements, and check all expenditures. 

Taxation: Tax Commission — three members appointed 
by the Governor. 

Secretary to the Commission — appointed by the 
Commission. 

Civil Service: Civil Service Commission — three mem¬ 
bers appointed by the Governor. 

Secretary to the Commission — appointed by the 
Commission. 

THE SIX DEPARTMENTS 

To secure unity, assure cooperation, centralize con¬ 
trol, and fix responsibility throughout the executive ser- 


5 


66 


APPLIED HISTORY 


vice all of the existing State offices, bureaus, boards, 
commissions, and institutions would be grouped into six 
executive departments as follows: 

I. The Department of Finance 

II. The Department of Public Works and Con¬ 
servation 

III. The Department of Public Welfare 

IV. The Department of Education 

V. The Department of Labor and Commerce and 
Industry 

VI. The Department of Agriculture 

At the head of each department there would be a 
‘‘ Director’ ’ who would supervise the work of the several 
bureaus and officers included in that department and be 
held responsible for the general conduct of affairs there¬ 
in. Except where constitutionally elective officers act in 
that capacity, the directors of departments would be ap¬ 
pointed by the Governor and be subject to removal by him 
— all such appointments and removals being confirmed 
by the Senate. In some instances the departments and 
bureaus would have the assistance of unpaid advisory 
boards. Moreover, the directors, who could be called into 
consultation by the Governor at any time (either individ¬ 
ually or collectively), would naturally constitute an ad¬ 
ministrative council or cabinet in the State government. 
Nor is there any good reason why the Attorney General, 
the Secretary of State, and the Auditor of State should 
not be included in such a council or cabinet. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE 

This is one of the most important departments of 
State administration; and “naturally the Treasurer re- 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 67 

mains in this plan the chief financial officer of the State. 
As such it is convenient to lay upon him certain executive 
duties. For the sake of uniformity the collection of all 
taxes is assigned to him. A purchasing bureau for office 
supplies and the like is placed under him, including the 
purchase of printed matter. ” 48 

Director of Finance: Treasurer of State — elected by 
the people. 

1. Bureau of State Funds: Deputy Treasurer of 

State — appointed by the Treasurer of State 
with the approval of the Governor. 

To collect, care for, and disburse the revenues 
of the State. 

2. Bureau of State Grounds and Buildings: Commis¬ 

sioner of Grounds and Buildings — appointed 
by the Treasurer of State with the approval of 
the Governor. 

To have custody of the capitol and capitol 
grounds including all buildings and improve¬ 
ments thereon. 

3. Bureau of Supplies: Commissioner of Supplies — 

appointed by the Treasurer of State with the 
approval of the Governor. 

Purchasing Agent — appointed by the Commis¬ 
sioner of Supplies. 

To supervise the purchase of departmental 
supplies. 

State Printer and Binder — appointed by the 
Commissioner of Supplies. 

To supervise all State printing and binding. 


68 


APPLIED HISTORY 


THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS AND CONSERVATION 

The Minnesota plan calls for a Department of Public 
Domain; but, since Iowa has disposed of most of its pub¬ 
lic domain (except a few meandered lakes and lake beds) 
it would be more appropriate in the Iowa outline of re¬ 
organization to substitute a Department of Public Works 
and Conservation for that of Public Domain. 49 This de¬ 
partment in Iowa would include the following: 

Director of Public Works and Conservation — appoint¬ 
ed by the Governor. 

1. Bureau of Highways: Commissioner of Highways 

— appointed by the Director of Public Works. 
To supervise highways and to consult with 
county and township authorities relative to 
road and bridge improvements. 

2. Bureau of Building Construction: State Architect 

— appointed by the Director of Public Works. 
To supervise State buildings in consultation 
with the several departments and State insti¬ 
tutions. 

3. Bureau of Fish and Game: Commissioner of Fish 

and Game — appointed by the Director of Pub¬ 
lic Works. 

To have charge of the restocking and distribu¬ 
tion of fish and game, and to enforce the fish 
and game laws. 

4. Bureau of Lands: Commissioner of State Lands 

— appointed by the Director of Public Works. 
To have supervision of meandered lakes and 
lake beds, and appraise land for State pur¬ 
poses. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 69 


5. Bureau of Parks and Forestry: Commissioner of 

Parks and Forestry — appointed by the Direc¬ 
tor of Public Works. 

To promote the conservation of forests, 
supervise reforestation, and care for and po¬ 
lice State parks. 

6. Bureau of Drainage and Waters: Commissioner 

of Drainage and Waters — appointed by the 
Director of Public Works. 

To supervise State drainage projects, consult 
with county authorities in reference to drain¬ 
age plans, and promote the conservation of 
waters and water power. 

Conservation Board: five members appointed by the 
Governor. 

To advise the department — especially the 
bureaus of fish and game, lands, parks and 
forestry, drainage and waters — in reference 
to conservation and park policies. 

Board of Public Works: five members appointed by 
the Governor. 

To advise the department — especially the 
bureaus of building construction and high¬ 
ways. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WELFARE 

The Department of Public Welfare would naturally 
include all of the charitable and correctional institutions 
and activities of the State. Likewise public health super¬ 
vision and social welfare direction would be included in 
the functions of this department. 

In view of the excellent and successful record of the 


70 


APPLIED HISTORY 


present Board of Control of State Institutions, the estab¬ 
lishment of which was a decided step in the direction of 
executive reorganization in Iowa, it should be said that 
the organization proposed by the Minnesota plan aims at 
still further centralization and administrative unification. 
Under the board system “the care of the institutions be¬ 
comes a matter apart from the state government’ ’; while 
under the single-headed system here outlined the admin¬ 
istration of all these institutions becomes a logical part 
of the machinery of State government. 50 

Director of Public Welfare — appointed by the Gov¬ 
ernor. 

Two Assistant Directors — appointed by the Director 
of Public Welfare with the approval of the Gov¬ 
ernor. 

Accounting Officer 
Purchasing Agent 

1. State Institutions: Superintendents and wardens 
— appointed by the Director of Public Welfare. 
To administer the following State institu¬ 
tions : 

The Iowa Soldiers ’ Orphans ’ Home at Dav¬ 
enport 

The Iowa Soldiers * Home at Marshalltown 

The School for the Deaf at Council Bluffs 

The Institution for Feeble-minded Children 
at Glenwood 

The Mt. Pleasant State Hospital for the In¬ 
sane 

The Independence State Hospital for the 
Insane 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 71 


The Clarinda State Hospital for the Insane 
The Cherokee State Hospital for the Insane 
The State Hospital for Inebriates at Knox¬ 
ville 

The State Hospital for Female Inebriates 
at Mt. Pleasant 

The Tuberculosis Sanitorium at Oakdale 
(Iowa City) 

The State Colony for Epileptics near 
Woodward 

The Industrial School for Boys at Eldora 
The Industrial School for Girls at Mitchell- 
ville 

The Reformatory at Anamosa 
The Industrial Reformatory for Females at 
Anamosa 

The Penitentiary at Fort Madison 
2. Bureau of Public Health: Commissioner of Public 
Health — appointed by the Director of Public 
Welfare. 

To aid in the prevention of disease, the sup¬ 
pression of epidemics, and the prevention of 
tuberculosis. To supervise the enforcement 
of health and quarantine laws and regula¬ 
tions. 

Advisory Board — five members appointed by the 
Governor. 

To advise the department, visit State institu¬ 
tions, study welfare problems, and approve 
health and quarantine regulations. 

Board of Parole — three members appointed by the 
Governor. 


72 


APPLIED HISTORY 


THE DEPAETMENT OF EDUCATION 

It is evident that in the opinion of the members of the 
Efficiency and Economy Commission of Minnesota no 
branch of the executive service is in greater need of re¬ 
organization than that dealing with educational affairs. 
Nor is there a branch of the service in which the problems 
are more complex. Educational institutions and activi¬ 
ties are so different in kind from other State institutions 
and activities that the methods of the latter can not al¬ 
ways be used in administering the former. At the same 
time the basic principles of organization and administra¬ 
tion are as applicable in this as in any other field of the 
public service: that is, there should be harmony and unity 
in the organization of the educational system as a whole; 
there should be a definite location of responsibility; and 
there should be a scientifically arranged educational 
budget included in the general State budget. 51 

In Iowa the establishment of the State Board of Edu¬ 
cation and the provision for the appointment of the State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction by the Governor are 
steps in the direction of a reorganization of the educa¬ 
tional service. Following the Minnesota proposals the 
further reorganization of the educational system in Iowa 
would proceed along the lines indicated below. More¬ 
over, in the general scheme here presented the Council of 
Education would be the chief organ in the unification of 
the educational system. It would make up the education¬ 
al budget as a whole; and since the estimates in the budget 
must indicate in considerable detail the activities of the 
several institutions under the appropriations, the Council 
of Education would be responsible for a logical system of 
higher education as well as for an harmonious articula¬ 
tion of the higher educational institutions with the free 
public schools of the State. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 73 


In the Minnesota proposals the several boards of ex¬ 
aminers for licensing professions are grouped in the De¬ 
partment of Public Welfare; but since training for the 
professions is largely an educational function these 
boards in the Iowa reorganization scheme are grouped in 
the Department of Education. 

As the Director of Education is the responsible head 
of the free public school system so it is proposed to make 
the Chancellor of Education the responsible head of the 
system of higher education. 

State Council of Education — twenty-three ex officio 
members, consisting of (a) the nine members of the 
State Board of Education, (b) the nine members of 
the State Board of Regents, (c) the Director of Edu¬ 
cation, (d) the Chancellor of Education, (e) the Presi¬ 
dent of the State University, (f) the President of the 
State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, and 
(g) the President of the State Teachers’ College. 

A — Elementary and Secondary Education 
State Board of Education — nine members appointed by 
the Governor. 

Director of Education — appointed by the State Board 
of Education. 

To take the place of the present Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, to direct the inspection and stand¬ 
ardization of schools, to administer the State laws 
relative to secondary and elementary schools, to super¬ 
intend the certification of teachers and determine the 
qualifications of supervisors. 

B — Higher Education 

State Board of Regents — nine members appointed by 
the Governor. 


74 


APPLIED HISTORY 


The State University of Iowa 

The State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 
The State Teachers’ College 

Chancellor of Education — appointed by the State 
Board of Regents. 

To he the executive head of the system of higher edu¬ 
cation, directing the administration of the three insti¬ 
tutions under the State Board of Regents. 

President of the State University — appointed by the 
State Board of Regents upon the recommenda¬ 
tion of the Chancellor of Education. 

President of the State Agricultural College — ap¬ 
pointed by the State Board of Regents upon the 
recommendation of the Chancellor of Education. 

President of the State Teachers 9 College — appointed 
by the State Board of Regents upon the recom¬ 
mendation of the Chancellor of Education. 

C — Miscellaneous 

Boards of Examiners — appointed by the State Board of 
Education upon the nomination of the Chancellor of 
Education, to conduct examinations for the licensing 
of professions. 

Board of Dental Examiners 

Board of Law Examiners 

Board of Medical Examiners 

Board of Optometry Examiners 

Board of Examiners for Mine Inspectors 

Board of Pharmacy Examiners 

Bureau of Libraries: State Librarian — appointed by the 
Director of Education. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 75 


To superintend the several branches of the State Li¬ 
brary including 

The Miscellaneous Department 
The Law Department 
The Legislative Reference Department 
The Historical Department 
The Archives Department 
The Traveling Library Department 
The Library Extension Department 
The Geological Survey: State Geologist — appointed by 
the Board of Regents upon the recommendation 
of the Chancellor of Education. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 

In the Department of Labor and Commerce and In¬ 
dustry all of the State’s activities in the field of indus¬ 
trial and commercial relations are grouped together. 52 
In accordance with the Minnesota plan this department 
would be organized along the following lines: 

Director of Labor and Commerce and Industry — ap¬ 
pointed by the Governor. 

1. Bureau of Labor: Commissioner of Labor — ap¬ 
pointed by the Director of Labor and Commerce. 
Concerned with factory inspection, mine in¬ 
spection, boat inspection, boiler inspection, 
the protection of women and children, the en¬ 
forcement of safety laws, employment agen¬ 
cies, and the like. 

Industrial Commissioner — appointed by the Di¬ 
rector of Labor and Commerce. 

To administer the system of work accident 
indemnity. 


76 


APPLIED HISTORY 


2. Bureau of Banks: Commissioner of Banks — ap¬ 

pointed by the Director of Labor and Commerce. 
To supervise banking institutions, inspect 
State banks, and enforce bank legislation. 

3. Bureau of Insurance: Commissioner of Insurance 

—appointed by the Director of Labor and Com¬ 
merce. 

To supervise insurance activities, enforce in¬ 
surance legislation, and look after the insur¬ 
ance of State property. 

Fire Marshal — appointed by the Director of La¬ 
bor and Commerce. 

To aid in fire prevention, suppress arson, and 
inspect hotels — in part. 

4. Bureau of Standards: Commissioner of Standards 

— appointed by the Director of Labor and Com¬ 
merce. 

To have charge of weights and measures, food 
inspection, oil inspection, and hotel inspection 
— in part. 

5. Bureau of Occupations: Commissioner of Occupa¬ 

tions — appointed by the Director of Labor and 
Commerce. 

To have charge of the licensing of account¬ 
ants, auto-drivers, barbers, electricians, horse- 
shoers, and the like. 

Railroad and Public Utility Commission: Board of 
(three) Commissioners — appointed by the 
Governor. 

To have charge of the regulation of the ser¬ 
vice and rates of railroads and other public 
utilities, including elevators and warehouses. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 77 


To supervise the enforcement of legislation 
relative to railroads and other public utilities. 
Commerce Counsel — appointed by the Board 
of Commissioners. 

Board of Labor: five members representing both 
wage-workers and employees — appointed by 
the Governor. 

To advise the Bureau of Labor, to be con¬ 
cerned with the regulation of minimum wages, 
arbitration, and the standardization of work¬ 
men^ compensation. 

In reference to the above grouping of functions the 
Minnesota Efficiency and Economy Commission observes 
that 1 ‘there is obvious advantage in co-operation as to 
weights and measures, food inspection, and oil inspection, 
which are brought together, along with other functions, in 
one Bureau of Standards; and in associating inspection 
of mines and of boilers with inspection of factories.” 53 

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

A separate Department of Agriculture is amply justi¬ 
fied by the importance and extent of agriculture in the 
State of Iowa. In this department would be brought to¬ 
gether a variety of more or less closely related adminis¬ 
trative activities which are in need of coordination and 
supervision. 54 For one thing it would bring the State 
Fair completely under the administrative control of the 
State and within the State budget. The department 
would be organized as follows: 

Director of Agriculture — appointed by the Governor. 

1. Bureau of Dairies: Commissioner of Dairies — 
appointed by the Director of Agriculture. 


78 


APPLIED HISTORY 


To inspect creameries and dairies and to pro¬ 
mote dairying in the State. 

2. Bureau of Live Stock: Commissioner of Live 

Stock — appointed by the Director of Agricul¬ 
ture. 

To promote the live stock industry, to sup¬ 
press animal diseases, and to register stal¬ 
lions. 

3. Bureau of Plants: State Entomologist — appoint¬ 

ed by the Director of Agriculture. 

To inspect nurseries, apiaries, and seeds. To 
conduct a weather and crop service. 

4. Bureau of Exhibits: Superintendent of the State 

Fair — appointed by the Director of Agricul¬ 
ture. 

To manage the State Fair and exposition 
grounds, and to consult with managers of 
county fairs and agricultural societies. 

5. Bureau of Publicity: Commissioner of Publicity 

— appointed by the Director of Agriculture. 

To collect, compile, and disseminate informa¬ 
tion and statistics concerning the people, 
government, industries, and resources of the 
State. 

Agricultural Advisory Board: five members — 
appointed by the Governor. 

To advise the department, consider regula¬ 
tions for animal and plant quarantine, and to 
provide for the standardization of State aid 
to fairs and agricultural associations. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 79 


THE FRINGE OF GOVERNMENT 

There are in Iowa, as in most other Commonwealths, a 
number of organizations which, although not strictly 
branches of the executive service, have varying relations 
to the State and bring valuable cooperation to the service 
of the State. For example, there is The State Historical 
Society, “a venerable institution” concerning which the 
Minnesota Efficiency and Economy Commission say, 4 ‘it 
is deemed best to let it be independent.” 55 Independence 
is all the more important in the case of The State His¬ 
torical Society of Iowa since its scientific research activ¬ 
ities are of such a character that closer political affilia¬ 
tions would be of doubtful wisdom. The Iowa Academy 
of Science, the State Horticultural Society, and the State 
Teachers 9 Association likewise belong to what the Minne¬ 
sota Commission characterize as “the fringe of govern¬ 
ment.” For budgetary purposes these organizations 
could be grouped under the Department of Education. 


















































































































































































NOTES AND REFERENCES 







NOTES AND REFERENCES 


1 Beard’s American Government and Politics, pp. 86, 87, 88. 

2 A recent writer declares that “the legislatures themselves justify this 
distrust by pouring out vast floods of laws, most of them badly drawn and 
many of them useless or mischievous, condemning their predecessors by hun¬ 
dreds of amendments to existing laws, and themselves by furnishing to their 
successors similar occasions for amendment.”—Tyng’s A Draft of a Frame 
of Government in the Political Science Quarterly, Yol. XXVII, No. 2, p. 195. 

s The following summary of arguments in favor of the unicameral legis¬ 
lature, taken from the report of a joint committee of the Nebraska Senate 
and House on Deform of Legislative Procedure and Budget in Nebraska 
(page 36), illustrates contemporary reasoning on the subject:— 

1. Representative government by the people should be direct and responsible. 
One body can more directly represent the public will of a democratic people than two 
or more. 

2.. Cities all over the civilized world having a larger population and more diverse 
interests than Nebraska are governed by one body, and the tendency is to make that 
body smaller with more direct responsibility upon each member than hitherto. 

3. The arguments for a two-house legislature may be summarized under three 
heads: 

(a) The need of proper representation for different orders or classes of citizens 
in respect to wealth, education, or social position. 

The answer to this is that the spirit of American institutions is to abolish class 
distinctions in government and to diffuse education and wealth, letting social position 
take care of itself. 

(b) Another argument is that two houses are required in order that they may be 
a check upon each other and prevent the enactment of unwise legislation. 

In practice it has been found that the so-called “check” between the two houses 
results in trades and absence of the real responsibility which should be felt by repre¬ 
sentatives of the people. Nothing is more common than for one house to pass a bill 
and the members who voted for it to urge the other house to defeat it, or for a little 
group of members in one house to hold up legislation from the other house until they 
extort from it what they demand. 

(c) The third point urged for two houses is in order to prevent hasty legislation 
by requiring more time and machinery for the enactment of a law, thus securing de¬ 
liberation and reflection. 

Deliberation and reflection do not now mark the work of a two-house legislature, 
which passes most of its acts in the last ten days of the session. A smaller body with 
a more direct responsibility upon each member arising therefrom will tend to greater 
deliberation and reflection than the present system. 

4. The practical results of one-house legislatures — in sixty-two states of the 


83 


84 


APPLIED HISTORY 


world — are satisfactory. In eight out of ten provinces of Canada a single house elected 
by the people and a cabinet of seven executive officers (likewise elected by the people 
to seats in the legislature where they must explain and defend the policy and plans of 
the government) works well. The chief reason hitherto for two houses in government 
has been the existence of an aristocracy of wealth or title which demanded and secured 
the second house as a means of perpetuating its own privileges. The growth of 
democracy in Nebraska and elsewhere calls for a single body of men, large enough to 
represent the different sections and industries of the state and small enough to transact 
the public business under a sense of individual responsibility, free from unwieldy 
numbers and the additional machinery of a second house. 

We believe that for Nebraska, in its present state of social and industrial develop¬ 
ment, such a legislature may be secured by the election of one body having a member¬ 
ship somewhere between that of the present Nebraska senate and present Nebraska 
house. As an added feature to such a plan of government, enabling the people to be 
represented with real responsibility in the executive offices as well as in the legislature, 
we recommend a careful study of the cabinet system now in use in many countries 
and provinces of the civilized world, under which the executive and administrative 
work is carried on by a small group of men, having seats in the legislature when it is 
in session and directly responsible to the legislature and the people for their continu¬ 
ance in office.— Bulletin No. 4 of the Nebraska Legislative Bureau, issued in May, 
1914. 

4 Be form of Legislative procedure and Budget in Nebraska in Bulletin 
No. 4 of the Nebraska Legislative Reference Bureau, p. 17. 

s Quoted in The Short Ballot Bulletin for April, 1913, Yol. II, No. 2, p. 3. 

6 The pressing demand for constitutional revision in order to accomplish 
the reorganization of State government is illustrated in the case of Ne¬ 
braska. In The Nebraska Popular Government Bulletin Senator J. H. Kemp 
points out that since the adoption of the State Constitution in 1875 the wants 
of that Commonwealth have increased with the growth of its population. 
But it appears that after providing for certain executive officers the Con¬ 
stitution [Article Y, Section 26] declares that “no other executive State 
office shall be continued or created, and the duties now devolving upon officers 
not provided for by this constitution shall be performed by the officers 
herein created. ” In 1875 and for some years thereafter it was possible for 
the constitutionally created officers to do all the necessary work of the gov¬ 
ernment. As the business of the State increased, these officers became 
heavily burdened; and yet no new executive offices could be established 
under the Constitution. In order, therefore, to meet the new needs the old 
officers were given additional duties and supplied with deputies to take care 
of the new business. Thus, the Governor of Nebraska is now State Veter¬ 
inarian, Chairman of the State Banking Board, Chief Oil Inspector, Pure 
Pood Commissioner, and Game Warden; while the Attorney General is by 
law a member of thirteen different boards. 

7 See publications of The National Short Ballot Organization. 

% Journal of the Bouse of the Thirty-fifth General Assembly, 1913, p. 
134. 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 85 


9 See Ford’s The Beorganization of State Government in the Proceedings 
of the Academy of Political Science , Vol. Ill, No. 2, p. 78. 

10 Of the recent movements for economy and efficiency the following may 
be mentioned in this connection:— 

In New York a “Department of Efficiency and Economy” was estab¬ 
lished following the Report of the Committee of Inquiry in 1913. The Com¬ 
missioner of Efficiency and Economy has issued a State Budget Report. 
This is a comprehensive document covering the appropriations for the fiscal 
year beginning October 1, 1914, with explanatory notes by heads of depart¬ 
ments and critical notes and analytical tables by the Department of Effi¬ 
ciency and Economy. It was transmitted to the Governor on March 16, 1914. 

New Jersey has a “Commission upon the Eeorganization and Consolida¬ 
tion of Different Departments of the State Government whose Functions are 
Interrelated” which was established in 1912. This Commission has issued 
two reports. The second report which was issued in February, 1914, con¬ 
tains practically all that was included in the first and earlier report. 

In Massachusetts there is likewise a “Commission on Economy and Ef¬ 
ficiency.” The Annual Report, covering the first year’s work of the Com¬ 
mission, is dated December 1, 1913. 

In Pennsylvania an “Economy and Efficiency Commission” was created 
by the General Assembly in 1913. It is directed to report on or before 
November 1, 1914. 

11 From the Report of the Committee of Inquiry to Governor William 
Sulzer, which was issued under date of March 21, 1913. 


12 Preliminary 
Minnesota, p. 7. 

Report 

of 

the 

Efficiency 

and 

Economy 

Commission 

of 

is Preliminary Report 
Minnesota, p. 8. 

of 

the 

Efficiency 

and 

Economy 

Commission 

of 

i4 Preliminary 
Minnesota, p. 8. 

Report 

of 

the 

Efficiency 

and 

Economy 

Commission 

of 

is Preliminary 
Minnesota, pp. 8, 

Report 

9. 

of 

the 

Efficiency 

and 

Economy 

Commission 

of 

i6 Preliminary 
Minnesota, pp, 8, 

Report 

9. 

of 

the 

Efficiency 

and 

Economy 

Commission 

of 

it Preliminary 
Minnesota, p. 9. 

Report 

of 

the 

Efficiency 

and 

Economy 

Commission 

of 

is Preliminary Report 
Minnesota, p. 9. 

of 

the 

Efficiency 

and 

Economy 

Commission 

of 

io Preliminary 

Report 

of 

the 

Efficiency 

and 

Economy 

Commission 

of 


Minnesota, p. 22. 


86 


APPLIED HISTORY 


20 Preliminary Report 
Minnesota, pp. 10, 11. 

21 Preliminary Report 
Minnesota, p. 10. 

22 Preliminary Report 
Minnesota, p. 13. 

23 Preliminary Report 
Minnesota, p. 13. 

24 Preliminary Report 
Minnesota, p. 21. 


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of the Efficiency and 
of the Efficiency and 
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Economy Commission of 
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Economy Commission of 
Economy Commission of 
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25 Quoted in the Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Com 
mittee of Illinois, pp. 3, 4. 


26 Under the authority of the Committee Professor Fairlie employed as 
his assistants James W. Garner, Professor of Political Science in the Uni¬ 
versity of Illinois, Maurice H. Robinson, Professor of Industry and Trans¬ 
portation in the University of Illinois, George E. Frazier, Professor of 
Public Accounting and Comptroller in the University of Illinois, Walter F. 
Dodd, Assistant Professor of Political Science in the University of Illinois, 
and John M. Mathews, Associate in Political Science in the University of 
Illinois.— Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Committee of 
Illinois, p. 7. 


27 Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Committee of Illi¬ 
nois, pp. 5, 9. 

28 Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Committee of Illi¬ 
nois, pp. 9, 10. 

29 Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Committee of Illi¬ 
nois, p. 10. 

so Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Committee of Illi¬ 
nois, p. 12. 


3i Under date of January 1, 1914, the Nebraska Legislative Reference 
Bureau issued, as Bulletin No. 3, an instructive compilation on Legislative 
Procedure in the Forty-eight States. 


32 Reform of Legislative Procedure and Budget in Nebraska in Bulletin 
No. 4 of the Nebraska Legislative Reference Bureau, p. 14. 

33 Reform of Legislative Procedure and Budget in Nebraska in Bulletin 
No. 4 of the Nebraska Legislative Reference Bureau, pp. 4, 7-15. 

34 Draft of Suggested Amendments to the Constitution of Oregon issued 


REORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 87 


by the People’s Power League, December 28, 1911; Proposed Constitutional 
Amendments and Measures submitted at the general election in November, 
1914, (published by authority), p. 82. See also The Short Ballot Bulletin, 
Vol. I, No. 8, p. 3. 

35 The importance of a scientific budget in the reorganization of State 
government can not be over-emphasized. Perhaps the best accessible treat¬ 
ment of the budget problem is found in The Budget by S. Gale Lowrie — a 
publication of 259 pages issued by the Wisconsin State Board of Public 
Affairs in 1913. 

36 Laws of Iowa, 1913, p. 23. 

37 Manuscript Beport of the Efficiency Engineers, p. IY. 

Prior to the passage of the Act of March 17, 1913, the Joint Committee 
on Retrenchment and Reform had engaged (on February 5, 1913) Quail, 
Parker & Company to assist in the examination of the affairs of certain 
branches of the State executive service. Later a contract was made with the 
same firm for more extensive investigations under the authorization of the 
Act of March 17th. 

38 Manuscript Report of the Efficiency Engineers, pp. IY, VIII. 

39 Manuscript Report of the Efficiency Engineers, p. 10. 

^0 Manuscript Report of the Efficiency Engineers, p. 19. See also Report 
of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the South Dakota Bar Association for 
Dean Vance’s address, which is entitled Some Modern Lessons from an 
Ancient Court, pp. 125-130. 

41 Manuscript Report of the Efficiency Engineers, p. 20. 

42 Manuscript Report of the Efficiency Engineers, pp. 21-25. 

43 Manuscript Report of the Efficiency Engineers, pp. 20, 25. 

44 Manuscript Report of the Efficiency Engineers, pp. 20, 21. 

45 Manuscript Report of the Efficiency Engineers, pp. 20, 21. 

46 Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Commission of 
Minnesota, p. 3. 

47 Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Commission of 
Minnesota, p. 22. 

48 Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Commission of 
Minnesota, p. 23. In the plan for reorganization in Iowa the writer has 
outlined the Department of Finance more fully than does the Minnesota 
plan. 

49 Preliminary Report of the Efficiency and Economy Commission of 
Minnesota, pp. 23, 24. 


88 


APPLIED HISTORY 


so Preliminary Beport 
Minnesota, pp. 24, 25, 26. 

51 Preliminary Beport 
Minnesota, p. 26. 

52 Preliminary Beport 
Minnesota, pp. 27, 28. 

53 Preliminary Beport 
Minnesota, p. 28. 

54 Preliminary Beport 
Minnesota, pp. 28, 29. 

55 Preliminary Beport 
Minnesota, p. 29. 


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